The origin and development of the moral ideas

The moral concepts essentially generalisations of tendencies in certain phenomena to call forth moral emotions, pp. 4-6.--The assumed universality or "objectivity" of moral judg...

The moral emotions of two kinds: disapproval, or indignation, and approval, p. 21.--The moral emotions retributive emotions, disapproval forming a sub-species of resentment, and...

Whilst, in the course of mental evolution, the true direction of the hostile reaction involved in moral disapproval has become more apparent, its aggressive character has become...

We may feel disinterested resentment, or disinterested retributive kindly emotion, on account of an injury inflicted, or a benefit conferred, upon another person with whose pain...

Our analysis to be concerned with moral concepts formed by the civilised mind, p. 131.--Moral concepts among the lower races, pp. 131-133.--Language a rough generaliser, p. 133....

How we can get an insight into the moral ideas of mankind at large, p. 158.--The close connection between the habitualness and the obligatoriness of custom, p. 159.--Though ever...

Definitions of the term "conduct," p. 202 _sq._--The meaning of the word "act," p. 203 _sq._--The meaning of the word "intention," p. 204.--There can be only one intention in on...

Cases in which no distinction is made between intentional and accidental injuries, pp. 217-219.--Yet even in the system of self-redress intentional or foreseen injuries often di...

An agent not responsible for anything which he could not be aware of, p. 249.--The irresponsibility of animals, pp. 249-251.--Resentment towards an animal which has caused some...

Motives considered only in proportion as the moral judgment is influenced by reflection, p. 283.--Little consideration for the sense of duty as a motive, _ibid._--Somewhat great...

Explanation of the fact that moral judgments are passed on conduct and character, p. 314.--The correctness of this explanation proved by the circumstance that not only moral emo...

Homicide of any kind condemned by the early Christians, p. 345.--Their total condemnation of warfare, p. 345 _sq._--This attitude towards war was soon given up, pp. 346-348.--Th...

Parricide the most aggravated form of murder, pp. 383-386.--The custom of abandoning or killing parents who are worn out with age or disease, p. 386 _sq._--Its causes, pp. 387-3...

The husband's power of life and death over his wife among many of the lower races, p. 418 _sq._--The right of punishing his wife capitally not universally {xvi} granted to the h...

The prevalence of human sacrifice, pp. 434-436.--This practice much more frequently found among barbarians and semi-civilised peoples than among genuine savages, p. 436 _sq._--A...

The prevalence of the custom of blood-revenge, pp. 477-479.--Blood-revenge regarded not only as a right, but as a duty, p. 479 _sq._--This duty in the first place regarded as a...

Duelling resorted to as a means of bringing to an end hostilities between different groups of people, p. 497 _sq._--Duels fought for the purpose of settling disputes between ind...

In the case of bodily injuries the magnitude of the offence, other things being equal, proportionate to the harm inflicted, pp. 511-513.--The degree of the offence also depends...

The mother's duty to rear her children, p. 526.--The husband's and father's duty to protect and support his family, pp. 526-529.--The parents' duty of taking care of their offsp...

Instances of great kindness displayed by savages towards persons of a foreign race, pp. 570-572.--Hospitality a universal custom among the lower races and among the peoples of c...

The right of personal freedom never absolute, p. 597.--Among some savages a man's children are in the power of the head of their mother's family or of their maternal uncle, p. 5...

Among the lower races the wife frequently said to be the property or slave of her husband, p. 629 _sq._--Yet even in such cases custom has not left her entirely destitute of rig...

Definition of slavery, p. 670 _sq._--The distribution of slavery and its causes among savages, pp. 671-674.--The earliest source of slavery was probably war or conquest, p. 674...

THAT the moral concepts are ultimately based on emotions either of indignation or approval, is a fact which a certain school of thinkers have in vain attempted to deny. The term...

IN the preceding chapter it was asserted, in general terms, that the moral concepts are based on emotions, and the leading arguments to the contrary were met. We shall now proce...

IT was said in the last chapter that moral disapproval is a sub-species of resentment, and that resentment is, in its essence, an aggressive attitude of mind towards an assumed...

WE have seen that moral disapproval is a form of resentment, and that moral approval is a form of retributive kindly emotion. It still remains for us to examine in what respects...

WE have found that resentment and retributive kindly emotion are easily explicable from their usefulness, both of them having a tendency to promote the interests of the individu...

WE have assumed that the moral concepts are essentially generalisations of tendencies in certain phenomena to call forth moral emotions. We have further assumed that there are t...

MORAL ideas are expressed in moral judgments. We have hitherto examined the predicates of such judgments, the import and origin of the moral concepts. Now a much wider field or...

THE subjects of moral judgments call for a very comprehensive investigation, which will occupy the main part of this work. As already said, we shall first discuss the general na...

HOWEVER obvious it may be to the reflecting moral consciousness that the only proper object of moral blame and praise is the will, it would be a hasty conclusion to assume that...

WE hold an agent responsible not only for his intention, but for any known concomitant of his act, as also for any such unknown concomitant of it as we attribute to want of due...

[Footnote 42: _Cf._ Post, _Die Grundlagen des Rechts_, p. 359; Friedrichs, 'Mensch und Person,' in _Das Ausland_, 1891, pp. 300, 315; and, especially, d'Addosio, _op. cit._ p. 1...

NO enlightened and conscientious moral judge can regard his judgment as final, unless he know the motive, or motives, of the volition by which his judgment is occasioned. But in...

THE observation has often been made that in early moral codes the so-called negative commandments, which tell people what they ought not to do, are much more prominent than the...

WE have examined the general nature of the subjects of moral judgments from an evolutionary point of view. We have seen that such judgments are essentially passed on conduct and...

WE have discussed the general nature of those phenomena which have a tendency to evoke moral blame or moral praise. We have seen that moral judgments are passed on conduct and c...

CHRISTIANITY introduced into Europe a higher regard for human life than was felt anywhere in pagan society. The early Christians condemned homicide of any kind as a heinous sin....

IN the last two chapters we have only been concerned with the statement of facts; we shall now make an attempt to explain those facts. What is the source of the moral commandmen...

WE have found that among mankind at large there is a moral rule which forbids people to kill members of their own society. We shall now see that the stringency of this rule is s...

AMONG many of the lower races a husband is said to possess the power of life and death over his wife; but what this actually means is not always obvious. It is quite probable th...

Men are killed with a view to gratifying the desires of superhuman beings. We meet with human sacrifice in the past history of every so-called Aryan race.[1] It occurred, at lea...

ACCORDING to early custom, a person who takes the life of another may himself be killed by the relatives of his victim, or some other member of his family, clan, or tribe may be...

WHEN the system of revenge was replaced by the system of punishment, the offended party generally lost the right of killing the offender. But there are noteworthy exceptions to...

CLOSELY related to the right to life is the right to bodily integrity. Indeed, homicide is, generally speaking, the highest form of bodily injury which can, in the nature of thi...

IN previous chapters we have examined the regard for the life and physical well-being of others as displayed in moral ideas concerning homicide and the infliction of bodily harm...

WE have seen that in early society regard for the life and physical well-being of a fellow-creature is, generally speaking, restricted to members of the social unit, whereas for...

generally). Cook, _Voyage round the World_, p. 40 (Tahitians). Tregear, 'Niue,' in _Jour. Polynesian Soc._ ii. 13 (Savage Islanders), Turner, _Samoa_, p. 114; Pritchard, _Polyne...

FROM the modes of conduct which affect the life or bodily welfare of a fellow-creature we shall pass to those relating to personal freedom. In its absolute form the right of lib...

AMONG the lower races, as a rule, a woman is always more or less in a state of dependence. When she is emancipated by marriage from the power of her father, she generally passes...

SLAVERY is essentially an industrial institution, which implies compulsory labour beyond the limits of family relations. The master has a right to avail himself of the working p...

The meaning of the term "property," p. 1.--Savages accused of thievishness, p. 2.--Theft condemned by savages, pp. 2-13.--The condemnation of theft influenced by the value of th...

Acquisition of property by occupation, pp. 35-39.--By keeping possession of a thing, pp. 39-41.--By labour, pp. 41-43.--By a transfer of property by its owner, p. 43.--By inheri...

Definition of lying, p. 72.--Of good faith, _ibid._--The regard for truth and good faith among uncivilised races, pp. 72-88. --Foreigners visiting a savage tribe apt to underrat...

Explanation of the moral ideas concerning truthfulness and good faith, pp. 109-131.--When detected a deception implies a conflict between two irreconcilable ideas, which causes...

Definition of "honour," p. 137.--The feeling of self-regarding pride in animals, p. 137 _sq._--In savages, pp. 138-140.--The moral disapproval of insults, pp. 140-142.--The cond...

The regard for other persons' happiness in general, p. 153 _sq._--The moral ideas concerning conduct which affects other persons' welfare influenced by the relationship between...

Suicide and civilisation, p. 229.--Suicide said to be unknown among several uncivilised races, p. 229 _sq._--The prevalence of suicide among savages and barbarians, pp. 230-232....

General statements referring to the nature and origin of self-regarding duties and virtues, pp. 265-268.--Man naturally inclined to idleness, pp. 268-271.--Among savages either...

The gluttony of savages and their views on it, p. 290 _sq._--At higher stages of culture intemperance often subject to censure, p. 291.--Views on pleasures of the table, p. 291...

Certain kinds of food forbidden to certain classes of persons, pp. 319-324.--To young persons, p. 319 _sq._--To women, p. 320 _sq._--To men, p. 321 _sq._--To priests or magician...

Man naturally feeling some aversion to filth, p. 346.--Savages who are praised for their cleanliness, pp. 346-348.--Savages who are clean in certain respects but dirty in others...

Marriage considered indispensable among savage and barbarous races of men, p. 399.--Celibacy a great exception and marriage regarded as a duty among peoples of archaic culture,...

Uncivilised peoples among whom both sexes enjoy perfect freedom previous to marriage, pp. 422-424.--Among whom unchastity before marriage is looked upon as a disgrace or a crime...

Homosexual practices among the lower animals, p. 456.--Among various races of men, pp. 456-464.--Between women, p. 464 _sq._--The causes of homosexual practices, pp. 465-471.--C...

Animals treated with deference for superstitious reasons, pp. 490-493.--Butchers regarded as unclean, p. 493.--Many peoples averse from killing their cattle from economic motive...

The belief in a future life, p. 515 _sq._--Notions as regards the disembodied soul, p. 516.--The dead considered to have rights very similar to those they had whilst alive, pp....

Distinction between "natural" and "supernatural" phenomena, p. 582 _sq._--Supernatural mechanical energy, p. 583 _sq._--Supernatural qualities attributed to the mental constitut...

Supernatural beings sensitive to insults and disrespect, p. 639 _sq._--Irreverence to gods punished by men, _ibid._--The names of supernatural beings tabooed, pp. 640-643.--Expl...

The supernatural beings of savage belief frequently described as utterly indifferent to all questions of worldly morality, pp. 663-665.--The gods of many savages mostly intent o...

The attitude of religion towards matters of worldly morality in ancient Mexico, p. 697 _sq._--In ancient Peru, p. 698.--In ancient Egypt, pp. 698-701.--In ancient Chaldea, pp. 7...

Explanation of the malevolence of savage gods, p. 728 _sq._--Of the growing tendency to attribute more amiable qualities to the gods, pp. 729-731.--Men selecting their gods, p....

THE right of property implies that a certain person or certain persons are recognised as having a right to the exclusive disposal of a certain thing. The owner is not necessaril...

ACCORDING to an old theory set forth by Roman jurists, and afterwards much emphasised by Grotius,[1] the original mode of acquisition is occupation, that is, a person's taking p...

THE regard for truth implies in the first place that we ought to abstain from lying, that is, a wilful misrepresentation of facts, by word or deed, with the intention of produci...

THE condemnation of untruthfulness and bad faith springs from a variety of sources. In the first place, he who tells a lie, or who breaks a promise, generally commits an injury...

THERE are many acts, forbearances, and omissions, the offensiveness of which mainly or exclusively springs from men's desire to be respected by their fellow-men and their dislik...

IN previous chapters we have dealt with moral ideas concerning various modes of conduct which have reference to other men's welfare--to their life or bodily comfort, their liber...

THERE is one form of the altruistic sentiment which man shares with all mammals and many other animals, namely, maternal affection. As regards its origin various theories have b...

IN previous chapters we have discussed the moral valuation of acts, forbearances, and omissions, which directly concern the interests of other men; we shall now proceed to consi...

ACCORDING to current ideas men owe to themselves a variety of duties similar in kind to those which they owe to their fellow-creatures. They are not only forbidden to take their...

TRAVELLERS have often noticed with astonishment the immense quantities of food which uncivilised people are able to consume. Sir George Grey has described the orgies which follo...

Thus among the Australian aborigines the younger members of a tribe are, as it seems universally, subject to a variety of such restrictions, from which they are only gradually r...

IT seems that man, like many other animals, is naturally endowed with a certain tendency to cleanliness or aversion to filth. Of Caspar Hauser--the boy who had been kept in a du...

MAN'S sexual nature gives rise to various modes of conduct on which moral judgments are passed. We shall first consider such relations between the sexes as are comprised under t...

AMONG savage and barbarous races of men nearly every individual endeavours to marry as soon as he, or she, reaches the age of puberty.[1] Marriage seems to them indispensable, a...

The East African Barea and Kunáma do not regard it as in the least disreputable for a girl to become pregnant, nor do they punish nor censure the seducer.[1] Among the Wanyoro "...

OUR review of the moral ideas concerning sexual relations has not yet come to an end. The gratification of the sexual instinct assumes forms which fall outside the ordinary pale...

Totem animals must be treated with deference by those who bear their names, and animals generally regarded as divine must be respected by all; of this more will be said in a sub...

There is a general tendency in the human mind to assume that what has existed still exists and will exist. When a person dies it is difficult for those around him to conceive th...

Habitual cannibalism, permitted or in some cases enjoined by custom, has been met with in a large number of savage tribes and, as a religious or magical rite, among several peop...

WE now come to the last of those six groups of moral ideas into which we have divided our subject--ideas concerning conduct towards beings, real or imaginary, that are regarded...

MEN not only believe in the existence of supernatural beings, but enter into frequent relations with them. In every religion we may distinguish between two elements: a belief, a...

"The gods of the Gold Coast," says Major Ellis, "are jealous gods, jealous of their dignity, jealous of the adulation and offerings paid to them; and there is nothing they resen...

AS men are concerned about the conduct of their fellow men towards their gods, so gods are in many cases concerned about men's conduct towards one another--disapproving of vice...

The deities of ancient Mexico were generally clothed with terror, and delighted in vengeance and human sacrifices. But there was also the god Quetzalcoatl, generous of gifts, mi...

WE have seen that the gods of uncivilised races are to a very large extent of a malevolent character, that they as a rule take little interest in any kind of human conduct which...

WE have completed our task. Only a few words will be added to emphasise the leading features of our theory of the moral consciousness and to point out some general conclusions w...

Banishment, as a punishment, i. 46, 58, 172, 173, 224, 225, 227, 228, 267, 287, 312, 424, 601, ii. 4, 6, 7, 10, 12, 74, 123 n. ^1, 331, 424, 425, 452, 475 n. ^10, 478, 525

Cowardice, forgiveness of enemies regarded as a sign of, i. 73, 74, 485, ii. 145; the secret commission of offences despised as, ii. 58, 96 _sq._; lying a sign of, ii. 113; suic...

---- spirits, lunatics supposed to be possessed with, i. 270, 274, 275, ii. 593; intoxicated persons supposed to be possessed with, i. 281, ii. 344; persecuting ghosts replaced...

Funeral rites, ii. 519-528, 536-552; the ordinary, denied to suicides, ii. 238, 248, 250, 252-254, 549. See Blood (effusion of, at funerals; offered to the dead), Burial, Cremat...

687, ii. 165, 284, 341, 417, 479, 497, 700, 705, 706, 708-713, 715, 716, 718-720, 725, 734 _sq._; among uncivilised peoples, i. 403, 542-544, 578, ii. 59, 60, 69, 115, 271, 272,...

by the mutilations and self-bleedings of mourners, i. 476, ii. 547; by knowledge of religious truth, ii. 132-134, 719-721, 725-727; by the treatment of the dead person's corpse,...

reward undeserving persons in consequence of the merits of others, i. 96-99, ii. 660; connection between the severity of punishment and the belief in, i. 193-198; disobedience t...

punish homicide, i. 378-380, ii. 669, 672, 676, 684, 686, 700, 714, 717, 732; curses transformed into attributes of, i. 379, 561, 562, 585, 624, ii. 68, 116, 715; blood pollutio...

selection of, ii. 662, 729 _sq._; punish transgressions of custom, ii. 670, 728; punish bad behaviour towards old and sick persons, ii. 672, 675; punish adultery, ii. 675, 676,...

by eating, i. 446, ii. 562-564, 605, 625; by sexual intercourse, i. 593, ii. 444-446, 488; looked upon as a transferable entity, i. 586, ii. 607-610, 754; contact with, regarded...

inflicting bodily injuries upon their wives, i. 514-516, 631; their duty to protect and support their wives, i. 526-529, 532 _sq._; lending their wives to guests, i. 575, 593; l...

Inanimate things, revenged upon or punished, i. 26, 27, 260-264, 308; retributive emotions evoked by, i. 26, 27, 260-264, 315, 318; conceived as animate, i. 27, 263, ii. 595; mo...

Killing, in self-defence, i. 288-290; of foreigners, i. 331-334, 337-34, 370, 371, 373; of enemies, i. 331-333, 373, ii. 693; of slaves, i. 378, 421-429, 696, 707; of infants by...

proprietary rights of, ii. 33; loyalty to, ii. 180, 182; suicide regarded as an offence against, ii. 240, 263 n. ^1; taboos imposed upon, ii. 287 _sq._, 407, 418; the custom of...

Magic, regarded as a cause of death, i. 24, 29, ii. 534, 651; as a cause of lunacy, i. 317, ii. 531 _sq._; expertness in, attributed to strangers, i. 584; to old persons, i. 619...

addicted to homosexual practices, ii. 458, 459, 465, 472, 477, 484, 486 _sq._; treatment of the dead bodies of, ii. 527; cannibalism of, ii. 564; killing of disappointing, ii. 6...

Obedience, to parents, ch. xxv. (i. 597-628); to husbands, ch. xxvi. (i. 629-669); slaves, to their masters, ch. xxvii (i. 670-716); to rulers, i. 194-196; to gods, i. 194-198,...

Perjury, considered contagious, i. 58-61; considered sinful though committed unconsciously, i. 229, 231, 233 _sq._; punished by custom or law, i. 505, 521 _sq._, ii. 123 n. ^1;...

Priests, forbidden to take an oath, i. 58, ii. 638; to engage in warfare, {856} i. 348, 381; to shed human blood, i. 381 _sq._; to take part in a capital charge, i. 381, 382, 49...

a cause of uncleanliness, ii. 354-356; leads to various forms of asceticism, ii. 355-363; stigmatises incest, ii. 375, 376, 671; enjoins various forms of endogamy, ii. 378-382;...

not to be taken upon a guest, i. 576, 587 _sq._; taken for injuries inflicted upon guests, i. 577 _sq._; suicide as a method of taking, ii. 233, 234, 242-245; supposed to be tak...

Sacrificial victims, magic virtue ascribed to, i. 63, 65, 69, 444-447, ii. 563, 625, 658; looked upon as guardian spirits, i. 464 _sq._; as messengers, i. 465 _sq._, ii. 618; pr...

Unbelief, ii. 644-646, 705; as a subject of moral judgment, i. 216; considered a legitimate cause of war, i. 339, 349-352, 359; the right to bodily integrity influenced by, i. 5...

suicide committed by husbands on the death of their, ii. 232, 233, 235 _sq._; fasting of husbands on the death of their, ii. 299-301; adultery committed by, ii. 397, 447-455; of...

Page Text of 2nd edition Correction ch. 2, p. 32 n. 57 Obaralbanien Oberalbanien ch. 7, p. 181 n. 89 _Du Boys_ Du Boys ch. 7, p. 195 n. 186 slove slave ch. 9, p. 232 neglected n...