The Emancipation of South America

Three great names stand forth conspicuous in the annals of America, those of WASHINGTON, BOLÍVAR, SAN MARTIN. Of Washington, the great leader of the Democracy of the North; of B...

The victory of Ayacucho put an end to the War of Independence in South America. All the Royalist forces in Lower Peru capitulated, with the exception of those under command of R...

confiscated by the British naval authorities, on the plea that he was a pirate. After a vain attempt to procure redress in England he returned to Buenos Ayres, where he lived qu...

By the surrender of Miranda Monteverde was left unopposed in Venezuela, and was made Captain-General, with the title of “Pacificator.” He commenced his work of pacification by d...

The disappearance of the Radical party in Congress, the reactionary policy of the Conservatives, and the proceedings of Rozas at Concepcion, had most evil effect upon the course...

In none of the colonies of Spanish America was the struggle for emancipation so stubborn, so heroic, and so tragical, as in Venezuela. In the North of the Continent she was the...

The day-dreams of men often mould the course of their lives. The day-dream of Bolívar was the unification of South America. It was in pursuance of this dream that he created a g...

The Home Government, on hearing of the third insurrection on the island of Margarita, sent a reinforcement of 2,800 men under the command of General Canterac. Morillo on his way...

Spanish America on the Southern Continent, is divided geographically and socially into two great systems, which are nevertheless analogous, having the same origin and the same l...

The second fall of the Republic of Venezuela was coincident in point of time with the fall of constitutional government in the mother country, and the absolute King of Spain and...

“What spoils my sleep is not the strength of the enemy, but how to pass those immense mountains,” said San Martin, as from Mendoza he gazed upon the snow-clad summits of the And...

One of the heaviest charges brought by his contemporaries against San Martin, and which history has repeated, is the precipitate manner of his retirement from Peru. He left his...

In order to join Santander in Casanare Bolívar had to cross an immense plain, covered at this season with water, and had to swim seven deep rivers, taking his war material with...

At the commencement of the year 1821 the Royalist cause appeared completely lost in Peru. Pezuela, at a council of general officers, declared, without reserve, “the impossibilit...

The events in Spain in the year 1808 produced great excitement in New Granada, which was increased in the following year by receipt of advices of the revolution in Quito, mentio...

In September, 1814, San Martin took charge of the Government of Cuyo. The revolution in Chile had then lasted four years and was about to succumb, a prey to intestine discords a...

On the 31st December, 1812, the vanguard of the army sent against Monte Video, under the command of Colonel Rondeau, completely defeated a strong sortie of the garrison and laid...

A Dictatorship was a necessity of the time, but the powers of a Dictator to be efficient must be united in one person. Bolívar shared his power with Mariño, the alleged rights o...

Peru was independent, but she had not achieved independence for herself; neither did she know how to organize a Government when she had one of her own; for everything she was in...

The new Admiral when hoisting his pennant on the _O’Higgins_ might, after the manner of the old Dutch admirals, have nailed a broom to his masthead; his commission was to sweep...

The Generalissimo of the Liberating Army of Peru had two campaigns before him--one military, of which he carried the plans in his own head; the other political, the secret ramif...

The Provisional Junta, which was established at Buenos Ayres on the 25th May, 1810, was a simple evolution of historic and municipal rights, and was legalised by the election of...

Jose de San Martin was born on the 25th February, 1778, at the town of Yapeyu in Misiones, and was the fourth son of Captain Don Juan de San Martin who was at that time Lieutena...

The year 1817 had commenced with a victory and ended with a defeat, the year 1818 was to commence with a defeat to be followed by a victory which would decide the fate of Chile....

The district of Cuyo lies to the east of the Cordillera, between 31° and 35° south latitude, and extends eastward to the 66° of west longitude, where the Andean formation dies a...

After the battle of Boyacá, the defeated Royalists had retreated to the Highland Provinces of Pasto and Patia, in the south of Columbia, and were there strongly reinforced by Ay...

The military policy of the United Provinces had three distinct ends: first, to construct a new nation within the geographical limits of the old Viceroyalty of the River Plate; s...

The Army of the North when reinforced, barely numbered 2,000 men, mostly recruits, among whom desertion was frequent. Disorganized, short of officers, and badly clothed, it was...

Once only do astronomers record the meeting of two comets at the point of intersection of their eccentric orbits. Almost as rare in the records of mankind is the meeting of two...

The alliance between Argentina and Chile, sealed with the blood of her soldiers in the assault on Talcahuano, is the most important factor of this epoch in the struggle for the...

When San Martin in 1814 at Tucuman first made a sketch of his continental campaign, he saw that the true road from Chile to Lima was by sea. At that time both oceans, from Calif...

At daybreak on the 20th March the Royalist army, although triumphant, was in utter confusion. Only one battalion, that of Arequipa, under Rodil, had not dispersed. Osorio, leavi...

Peru was the first of the American colonies in which, at the era of the Conquest, the spirit of rebellion against the Mother Country broke out. During the Colonial epoch the mix...

On the 6th July, 1821, the Patriots entered Lima; on the 24th June was fought the battle of Carabobo, the Waterloo of the Royalists of Columbia. San Martin’s plan of a continent...

The restoration of royalty in Chile was attended with such excesses as might have been expected had some foreign power triumphed over the country. A system of blood and fire was...

From San Felipe, San Martin sent off a trusty spy to Santiago with instructions to bring him back, on the third day, information of the movements of the enemy. He then set himse...

Three great duties pressed upon San Martin when he withdrew a part of his army to the east of the Andes. First, the prosecution of his plans for the liberation of America; secon...

After the victory of Chacabuco, San Martin made three mistakes, two of mere detail, but one of importance, which had an evil influence upon his later operations. The campaign wh...

While in the years 1818 and 1819 the independence of Chile became firmly established, and in the north of the continent the revolution crossed the Andes and invaded New Granada,...

The organization of the Army of the Andes is one of the most extraordinary feats recorded in military history. It was a war machine, composed of men filled with the spirit of th...

The same day on which the despatch announcing the victory of Maipó reached Mendoza, Don Luis and Don Juan José Carrera were shot in that city. The suit against them had been car...

History seeks in vain to blot from her pages the invectives hurled at each other by the two heroes of the liberating expedition to Peru. They themselves have perpetuated them in...

From Valparaiso, on the 22nd July, 1820, when on the eve of sailing on his daring enterprise, San Martin addressed a proclamation to his fellow-countrymen in justification of hi...

Cochrane, having failed to persuade San Martin to undertake active operations against Lima, and not content with the rôle imposed upon him of simply blockading Callao, set his f...

The army of Cadiz, decimated by yellow fever, was for sanitary reasons dispersed. On the 1st January, 1820, Don Rafael del Riego, Colonel of the regiment of Asturias, then in qu...

During the absence of San Martin at Guayaquil an event had occurred at Lima which must have confirmed him in his intention of retiring from public life. The people had risen aga...

Peru may be looked upon as a conglomeration of mountains, enclosed within a sort of triangle, whose base on the third degree of south latitude measures about eight hundred miles...

After the return of the expedition from Callao, La Serna removed his head-quarters to Cuzco, leaving the bulk of the army behind him in the valley of Jauja, under Canterac. He s...

When Arenales rejoined the main army at Huara, and Ricafort descended by the mountain passes to Lima, Aldao and his Indian hordes were left in possession of the greater part of...

Up to this time the struggle for emancipation, both in the South and in the North of the Continent had been the result of the instinctive desire for independence which was commo...

Results of the Victory of Ayacucho--The Twofold Nature of the Revolution--Assassination of Monteagudo--Bolívar summons a Congress at Panama--His Theatrical Proceedings--Upper Pe...

The plans of San Martin were not in accordance with the ideas which prevailed in the military circles of the United Provinces. The many disasters which had befallen Argentine ar...

Excitement in New Granada--Expedition against Quito--Reinstallation of the late Captain-General of Quito--Massacres by the Royalist Soldiery--Revolution at Cartagena--Outbreak o...

Position of Affairs in Venezuela--The Fresh Outbreak on the Island of Margarita--Paez--His First Action--Revulsion of Opinion among the Llaneros--The Army of the Apure--Successe...

“Pacification” by Monteverde--The Signal for Revolt--Triste--The Expedition to the Mainland--Cruelties of Zuazola--Defeat of the Royalists at Maturin--The Island of Margarita--A...

The Northern Zone of South America--The First Outbreak at Quito--The Revolution at Caracas--Commencement of the Reaction--SIMON BOLÍVAR--His Appearance and Character--His Educat...

The Expedition of Morillo and Canterac against the Island of Margarita--The Action at Matasiete--The Massacre at Juan Griego--Morillo returns to Caracas--Position of Patriots an...

Bolívar discloses a New Phase of his Character--The Assembly of Caracas--His Treaty with Mariño--Defeat and Death of Yañez--Action at La Puerta--Repulse of Morales at Victoria--...

The Fall of Constitutional Government in Spain--Jealousy of Native Troops--Bolívar takes Command of the Army of New Granada--Capture of Bogotá--Fresh Honours to Bolívar--Bolívar...

Bolívar joins Santander--The Passage of the Cordillera--The Expedition halts in the Valley of Sagamoso--Skilful Manœuvres of Bolívar--He captures the City of Tunja--Battle of Bo...

The State of Peru--Appointment of a Junta--Bolívar offers Assistance, which is declined--The Plan of Campaign--The Army of the South--Dilatory Movements of Alvarado--The Advance...

The Day-Dreams of Bolívar--Rivadavia--Treaty between Columbia and Buenos Ayres--Overtures from Spain to Buenos Ayres--The Mission of Alzaga to the West and North--Treatment of t...

Prospects of the Royalists--Spanish Councils of War--Deposition of Pezuela--Proposals of Peace--The Conference at Retes--State of the Two Armies--The Royal Commissioner--The Pat...

The Captain of the Army of the Andes--Royalist Expedition for the Relief of Callao--The Defile of Espiritu Santo--Outburst of Enthusiasm in Lima--Manœuvres in Front of Lima--Ret...

Origin and Results of this Alliance--San Martin in Buenos Ayres--Carrera’s Trip to North America--His Return and Arrest by Pueyrredón--The Mission of Condarco to London--Quintan...

The Argument of the Book--Synopsis of the South American Revolution--The Action of America upon Europe--The Colonization of Spanish America--The Colonization of North America--C...

The Political State of Chile--Pezuela appointed Viceroy of Peru--His Policy--Osorio lands at Talcahuano with Reinforcements--The Patriot Forces--Retreat of O’Higgins--March of O...

The Spanish Revolution of 1820--Return of San Martin to Chile--Mutiny of the Detachment at San Juan--The Remnant of the Division crosses the Andes to Chile--Rout of Cepeda--The...

The Character of Cochrane--He sails for Callao--The Spanish Squadron--The First Attack on Callao--Loss of a Fireship--Capture of the _Montezuma_--Return to Valparaiso--Manufactu...

The Perplexities of San Martin--Popular Sentiment in Spain--The Expedition assembling at Cadiz--Discontent among the Troops--O’Donnell crushes the Conspiracy--San Martin summone...

Operations in the South of Columbia--Sucre--He leads an Expedition to Guayaquil--His Victory at Yahuachí--His Defeat at Ambato--Arrival of Murgeón from Spain--Bolívar marches on...

The Three Carreras--A New Junta--Dissolution of Congress--Armed Protest by Rozas--Valdivia--The First Newspaper--Death of Rozas--The Chilian Flag--Carrera again Dictator--Abasca...

The Southern Andes--Passes of the Andes--Stratagems of San Martin--The Pehuenche Indians--Preparations of Marcó--Preparations at Mendoza--Pueyrredón--Detachments flanking the Ma...

Mutual Invectives of Two Heroes--San Martin fails to fulfil his Promises to the Fleet--A Stormy Interview--Cochrane seizes Treasure--Cochrane pays his Men with Government Funds-...

The Sierra of Chacabuco--Atero occupies Chacabuco--Maroto appointed to command the Royalist Army--Moonlight March of the Patriots--The Royalist Vanguard driven in--Advance of th...

Aldao and his Indian Levies--Gamarra takes Command--Is driven out by Ricafort--Ricafort returns to Lima--Arenales marches from Huara--The Successes of Arenales cut short by the...

The Restoration of Spanish Domination in Chile--Cruelties of the Royalists--Nationalist Reaction--The Plans of Abascal--San Martin establishes Secret Agencies in Chile--His Spy...

Conspiracy to capture Callao--Miller sent South with a small Force--Lands at Pisco--Insurrection at Cuzco--Cochrane applies to Chile for Aid--Ravages of Fever at Chincha--Cochra...

The Mistakes committed by San Martin--Ordoñez--Las Heras marches to the South--Occupation of Concepcion--The Action of Gavilán--O’Higgins takes Command--Freyre captures the Fort...

The Continental Campaign--Lack of National Spirit in Peru--Convention of Notables at Lima--Declaration of Independence--Capture of Ships by Cochrane at Callao--Attempted Surpris...

San Martin’s Address to the Argentine People--Composition of the Expedition--Sailing of the Expedition--Disembarkation at Pisco--Occupation of Pisco by Las Heras--Proclamation b...

The Natural Division of Peru--The Highlands of Peru--The Flying Column under Arenales--Defeat of Quimper--The Invasion of the Highlands--The Battle of Pasco--Retreat of Aldao fr...

The Influence of Individuals--The Illusions of San Martin--Bolívar becomes jealous of Argentine Influence--The Entry of Bolívar into Guayaquil--He annexes the Province to Columb...

Royalist Headquarters established at Cuzco--Expedition under Loriga against Pasco--Defeat of Otero--Burning of Cangallo--San Martin sends a Contingent to the Assistance of Bolív...

Composition of the Army--Freeing the Slaves--Fray Beltran--The Arsenal--Powder Factory--Cloth Factory--Pueyrredón elected President--Declaration of Independence--Interview at Có...

The Naval Resources of Chile--Ships purchased by Government--Affair of the _Esmeralda_--Blanco Encalada--Another Convoy from Spain--The Mutiny of the _Trinidad_--The Chilian Squ...

Battle of the Cerrito--Meeting of the Constituent Assembly--Reforms--Spanish Depredations on the Fluvial Coasts--The Action of San Lorenzo--Battle of Salta--Influence of the Lod...

Chilian and Argentine Society compared--Martinez Rozas--Popular Excitement--Loss of Power by Governor Carrasco--The South of Chile--O’Higgins--Deposition of Carrasco--Establishm...

The Coming Campaigns--The Pageant at Callao--Expedition from Ancon--Guayaquil--Revolution of Guayaquil--The _Esmeralda_ Frigate cut out by Cochrane--The Expedition lands at Huac...

The Problem of the Argentine Revolution--The Geography and Ethnology of Upper Peru--Outbreak and Progress of the Revolution in Upper Peru--Cruelties of the Spaniards--Compositio...

The Army of Tucuman--Preparations of Pezuela--Plans of San Martin--The New Military School--Popular Movement in Salta--Martin Güemes--The Gauchos of Salta--Operations of the Roy...

His Birth and Parentage--Leaves for Spain--His Career in the Spanish Army--Africa--France--St. Vincent--Portugal--Cadiz--Society of Lautaro--Argonilla--Baylen--Tudela--Albuera--...

Confusion of the Royalists after Cancha-rayada--They march on Santiago--The Plain of Maipó--Position of the Patriots--Desertion of General Brayer--Battle of Maipó--Results of th...

The Last Campaign in Chile--Another Conspiracy of Carrera’s--Proclamation to the Peruvian People--Correspondence with Bolívar--San Martin withdraws a Division to Mendoza--The Tr...

The District of Cuyo--Policy of San Martin--Reception of Chilian Refugees--Trouble with Carrera--Fall of Alvear--Cuyo becomes an Independent State--Self-sacrifice of the People...

The Meeting and Merging of Two Revolutions--The Protectorate of Guayaquil--Defeat of the Provincial Army at Ambato--Arrival of Sucre--The Revolt of Puerto-Viejo--Arrival of Sala...

Disturbances in Lima--Banishment of Monteagudo--Return of San Martin--The First Congress of Peru--The Resignation of San Martin--Honours decreed to him by Congress--He leaves Pe...

Execution at Mendoza of Don Luis and Don Juan José Carrera--Constitutional Reform in Chile--Tragic Fate of Dr. Rodriguez--The Secret Correspondence of Osorio--San Martin leaves...