Climate and Time in Their Geological Relations A Theory of Secular Changes of the Earth's Climate

Present State of the Question.—Heat necessary to the Motion of a Glacier.—Ice does not shear in the Solid State.—Motion of a Glacier _molecular_.—How Heat is transmitted through...

Remarks on the Drift Deposits.—Examination of Drift by Borings.—Buried River Channel from Kilsyth to Grangemouth.—Channels not excavated by Sea nor by Ice.—Section of buried Cha...

Experimental Illustration of the Theory.—The Force exerted by Gravity.—Work performed by Gravity.—Circulation not by Convection.—Circulation depends on Difference in Density of...

Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit; its Effect on Climate.—Glacial Epoch not the direct Result of an Increase of Eccentricity.—An important Consideration overlooked.—Change of Ec...

Two Reasons why so little is known of Glacial Epochs.—Evidence of Glaciation to be found on Land-surfaces.—Where are all our ancient Land-surfaces?—The stratified Rocks consist...

Gulf-stream according to Dr. Carpenter not due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Facts to be Explained.—The Explanation of the Facts.—The Explanation hypothetical.—The Cause as...

The absolute Heating-power of Ocean-currents.—Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Absolute Amount of Heat conveyed by it.—Greater Portion of Moisture in inter-tropical Regions falls as R...

The direct Effect of Change of Obliquity on Climate.—Mr. Stockwell on the maximum Change of Obliquity.—How Obliquity affects the Distribution of Heat over the Globe.—Increase of...

Alternate Cold and Warm Periods.—Warm Inter-glacial Periods a Test of Theories.—Reason why their Occurrence has not been hitherto recognised.—Instances of Warm Inter-glacial Per...

Character of Caithness Boulder Clay.—Theories of the Origin of the Caithness Clay.—Mr. Jamieson’s Theory.—Mr. C. W. Peach’s Theory.—The proposed Theory.—Thickness of Scottish Ic...

Why the Question of Glacier-motion has been found to be so difficult.—The Regelation Theory.—It accounts for the Continuity of a Glacier, but not for its Motion.—Gravitation pro...

Introduction.—Ocean-currents, according to Maury, due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Temperature.—Difference of S...

_Modus Operandi_ of the Matter.—Polar Cold considered by Dr. Carpenter the _Primum Mobile_.—Supposed Influence of Heat derived from the Earth’s Crust.—Circulation without Differ...

Displacement of the Earth’s Centre of Gravity by Polar Ice-cap.—Simple Method of estimating Amount of Displacement.—Note by Sir W. Thomson on foregoing Method.—Difference betwee...

Rate of Subaërial Denudation a Measure of Time.—Rate determined from Sediment of the Mississippi.—Amount of Sediment carried down by the Mississippi; by the Ganges.—Professor Ge...

Cambrian Conglomerate of Islay and North-west of Scotland.—Ice-action in Ayrshire and Wigtownshire during Silurian Period.—Silurian Limestones in Arctic Regions.—Professor Ramsa...

Ocean-currents not due alone to the Trade-winds.—An Objection by Maury.—Trade-winds do not explain the Great Antarctic Current.—Ocean-currents due to the System of Winds.—The Sy...

Geological Time measurable from Astronomical Data.—M. Leverrier’s Formulæ.—Tables of Eccentricity for 3,000,000 Years in the Past and 1,000,000 Years in the Future.—How the Tabl...

Climate of Coal Period Inter-glacial in Character.—Coal Plants indicate an Equable, not a Tropical Climate.—Conditions necessary for Preservation of Coal Plants.—Oscillations of...

Adhémar’s Explanation.—Adhémar’s Theory founded upon a physical Mistake in regard to Radiation.—Professor J. D. Forbes on Underground Temperature.—Generally accepted Explanation...

Gravitation Theory.—Amount of Heat emitted by the Sun.—Meteoric Theory.—Helmholtz’s Condensation Theory.—Confusion of Ideas.—Gravitation not the chief Source of the Sun’s Heat.—...

The Fundamental Problem of Geology.—Geology a Dynamical Science.—The Nature of a Geological Principle.—Theories of Geological Climate.—Geological Climate dependent on Astronomic...

Quantity of Heat which can be conveyed by the General Oceanic Circulation trifling.—Tendency in the Advocates of the Gravitation Theory to under-estimate the Volume of the Gulf-...

Extent of Submergence from Displacement of Earth’s Centre of Gravity.—Circumstances which show that the Glacial Submergence resulted from Displacement of the Earth’s Centre of G...

Direction of Currents depends on Direction of the Winds.—Causes which affect the Direction of Currents will affect Climate.—How Change of Eccentricity affects the Mode of Distri...

Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of the Arctic Regions.—Absolute Amount of Heat received by the Arctic Regions from the Sun.—Influence of Ocean-currents shown by anot...

Transport of Blocks; Theories of.—Evidence of Continental Ice.—Pennine Range probably striated on Summit.—Glacial Drift in Centre of England.—Mr. Lacy on Drift of Cotteswold Hil...

Prevailing Methods defective.—Maximum Thickness of British Rocks.—Three Elements in the Question.—Professor Huxley on the Rate of Deposition.—Thickness of Sedimentary Rocks enor...

Cold Periods best marked in Temperate, and Warm Periods in Arctic, Regions.—State of Arctic Regions during Glacial Period.—Effects of Removal of Ice from Arctic Regions.—Ocean-C...

Mr. Findlay’s Estimate of the Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Mean Temperature of a Cross Section less than Mean Temperature of Stream.—Reason of such Diversity of Opinion regarding...

Methods of determining the Question.—The Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—Sir John Herschel’s Estimate of the Force.—Maximum Density of Sea-Water.—Rate of De...

climate which are brought into operation by an increase of eccentricity. By far the most important of all those agencies, and the one which mainly brought about the glacial epoc...

We now come to the _crucial test_ of the theories respecting the cause of the glacial epoch, viz., Warm Inter-glacial Periods. In Chapters XV. and XVI. I have given a statement...

origin of the sun’s heat. The energy possessed by the sun is generally supposed to have been derived from gravitation, combustion being totally inadequate as a source. But somet...

Present State of the Question.—Heat necessary to the Motion of a Glacier.—Ice does not shear in the Solid State.—Motion of a Glacier _molecular_.—How Heat is transmitted through...

Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit; its Effect on Climate.—Glacial Epoch not the direct Result of an Increase of Eccentricity.—An important Consideration overlooked.—Change of Ec...

Two Reasons why so little is known of Glacial Epochs.—Evidence of Glaciation to be found on Land-surfaces.—Where are all our ancient Land-surfaces?—The stratified Rocks consist...

Cambrian Conglomerate of Islay and North-west of Scotland.—Ice-action in Ayrshire and Wigtownshire during Silurian Period.—Silurian Limestones in Arctic Legions.—Professor Ramsa...

Why the Question of Glacier-motion has been found to be so difficult.—The Regelation Theory.—It accounts for the Continuity of a Glacier, but not for its Motion.—Gravitation pro...

Rate of Subaërial Denudation a Measure of Time.—Rate determined from Sediment of the Mississippi.—Amount of Sediment carried down by the Mississippi; by the Ganges.—Professor Ge...

Ocean-Currents not due alone to the Trade-winds.—An Objection by Maury.—Trade-winds do not explain the Great Antarctic Current.—Ocean-currents due to the System of Winds.—The Sy...

The direct Effect of Change of Obliquity on Climate.—Mr. Stockwell on the maximum Change of Obliquity.—How Obliquity affects the Distribution of Heat over the Globe.—Increase of...

Direction of Currents depends on Direction of the Winds.—Causes which affect the Direction of Currents will affect Climate.—How Change of Eccentricity affects the Mode of Distri...

Character of Caithness Boulder Clay.—Theories of the Origin of the Caithness Clay.—Mr. Jamieson’s Theory.—Mr. C. W. Peach’s Theory.—The proposed Theory.—Thickness of Scottish Ic...

Alternate Cold and Warm Periods.—Warm Inter-glacial Periods a Test of Theories.—Reason why their Occurrence has not been hitherto recognised.—Instances of Warm Inter-glacial Per...

The absolute Heating-power of Ocean-currents.—Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Absolute Amount of Heat conveyed by it.—Greater Portion of Moisture in Inter-tropical Regions falls as R...

Experimental Illustration of the Theory.—The Force exerted by Gravity.—Work performed by Gravity.—Circulation not by Convection.—Circulation depends on Difference in Density of...

Cold Periods best marked in Temperate, and Warm Periods in Arctic, Regions.—State of Arctic Regions during Glacial Period.—Effects of Removal of Ice from Arctic Regions.—Ocean-c...

Remarks on the Drift Deposits.—Examination of Drift by Borings.—Buried River Channel from Kilsyth to Grangemouth.—Channels not excavated by Sea nor by Ice.—Section of buried Cha...

Extent of Submergence from Displacement of Earth’s Centre of Gravity.—Circumstances which show that the Glacial Submergence resulted from Displacement of the Earth’s Centre of G...

Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of the Arctic Regions.—Absolute Amount of Heat received by the Arctic Regions from the Sun.—Influence of Ocean-currents shown by anot...

Geological Time measurable from Astronomical Data.—M. Leverrier’s Formulæ.—Tables of Eccentricity for 3,000,000 Years in the Past and 1,000,000 Years in the Future.—How the Tabl...

Transport of Blocks; Theories of.—Evidence of Continental Ice.—Pennine Range probably striated on Summit.—Glacial Drift in Centre of England.—Mr. Lacy on Drift of Cotteswold Hil...

Quantity of Heat which can be conveyed by the General Oceanic Circulation trifling.—Tendency in the Advocates of the Gravitation Theory to under-estimate the Volume of the Gulf-...

Displacement of the Earth’s Centre of Gravity by Polar Ice-cap.—Simple Method of estimating Amount of Displacement.—Note by Sir W. Thomson on foregoing Method.—Difference betwee...

Adhémar’s Explanation.—Adhémar’s Theory founded upon a physical Mistake in regard to Radiation.—Professor J. D. Forbes on Underground Temperature.—Generally accepted Explanation...

Climate of Coal Period Inter-glacial in Character.—Coal Plants indicate an Equable, not a Tropical Climate.—Conditions necessary for Preservation of Coal Plants.—Oscillations of...

_Modus Operandi_ of the Matter.—Polar Cold considered by Dr. Carpenter the _Primum Mobile_.—Supposed Influence of Heat derived from the Earth’s Crust.—Circulation without Differ...

Prevailing Methods defective.—Maximum Thickness of British Rocks.—Three Elements in the Question.—Professor Huxley on the Rate of Deposition.—Thickness of Sedimentary Rocks enor...

Gulf-stream according to Dr. Carpenter not due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Facts to be Explained.—The Explanation of the Facts.—The Explanation hypothetical.—The Cause as...

Gravitation Theory.—Amount of Heat emitted by the Sun.—Meteoric Theory.—Helmholtz’s Condensation Theory.—Confusion of Ideas.—Gravitation not the chief Source of the Sun’s Heat.—...

Methods of determining the Question.—The Force resulting from Difference of Specific Gravity.—Sir John Herschel’s Estimate of the Force.—Maximum Density of Sea-Water.—Rate of De...

Introduction.—Ocean-currents, according to Maury, due to Difference of Specific Gravity.—Difference of Specific Gravity resulting from Difference of Temperature.—Difference of S...

Mr. Findlay’s Estimate of the Volume of the Gulf-stream.—Mean Temperature of a Cross Section less than Mean Temperature of Stream.—Reason of such Diversity of Opinion regarding...

PAGE The Fundamental Problem of Geology.—Geology a Dynamical Science.—The Nature of a Geological Principle.—Theories of Geological Climate.—Geological Climate dependent on Astro...