A handbook of systematic botany

The present translation of Dr. E. Warming’s _Haandbog i den Systematiske Botanik_ is taken from the text of the 3rd Danish Edition (1892), and from Dr. Knoblauch’s German Editio...

SYSTEMATIC DIVISION OF THE THALLOPHYTES. To the Thallophytes belong three sub-divisions--Slime-Fungi, Algæ, and Fungi. Formerly the Thallophytes were divided into Algæ, Fungi, a...

Order 4. =Hydruraceæ.= The individuals are attached, without cilia, multicellular, branched, and with apical growth. The cells are spherical, but in the final stage almost spind...

The condition termed “Zooglœa,” which reminds us of _Nostoc_, is produced by the cells becoming strongly mucilaginous. A number of individuals in active division are found embed...

=Parasitic Bacteria= live in other living organisms; but the relation between “host” and parasite may vary in considerable degree. Some parasites do no injury to their host, oth...

The highest stage of development is found in _Volvox_ (Fig. 46). The cells are here arranged on the circumference of a sphere, and enclose a cavity filled with mucilage. The num...

Order 8. =Valoniaceæ.= The thallus is generally multicellular, without differentation into stem- or leaf-structures, but the cells are sometimes united together and form a leaf-...

Order 1. =Fucaceæ.= The following species are common on our coasts: _Fucus vesiculosus_ (Fig. 70) has a thallus with an entire margin, and with bladders arranged in pairs; _F. s...

The relation of the parasitic Fungus to the host-plant is mainly of two kinds. In the one case, the cell-contents are destroyed, the protoplasm is killed, and the cellular tissu...

The _length of time_ for which conidia can retain their power of germination is shortest (being only a few weeks) in those having thin walls and containing a large supply of wat...

Order 3. =Saprolegniaceæ=, _Water-Fungi_ which live as saprophytes on organic remains lying in water, for instance, on dead flies (Fig. 93), worms, remains of plants; but they m...

Order 1. =Erysiphaceæ, Mildews.= The Fungi belonging to this order are epiphytic parasites, whose mycelium, somewhat resembling a cobweb, may be seen on the leaves and other gre...

Order 6. =Bulgariaceæ.= Apothecia gelatinous under moist conditions, and horny when dried.--_Calloria fusarioides_; the red apothecia break out in the spring on the dried stalks...

The æcidia of many Rust-Fungi were formerly considered as distinct genera. The æcidia of _Phragmidium_, _Triphragmium_, and _Melampsora_, in which the _peridium is wanting_, wer...

Order 2. =Clavariaceæ.= The hymenium is situated on a stroma, and either completely _covers the smooth surface_ of the more or less fleshy _gymnocarpic fruit-body_, or is confin...

_Phallus impudicus_ (Stink-horn) (Fig. 179), has a fruit-body which at first is white, heavy, and soft, and resembles a hen’s egg in shape and size. The peridium is divided into...

As the capsule developes, an external layer of cells--the _amphithecium_--and an internal mass--the _endothecium_--are differentiated. As a rule the former becomes the wall of t...

The Mosses occur all over the globe. Many are found in great numbers, and growing thickly massed together, they form an important feature in landscapes (for example _Sphagnum_ a...

The SPORANGIA are small, round capsules, which, in a very large number of Ferns, are formed on the back, but more rarely on the edge of the ordinary foliage-leaves. It is very s...

The vegetative aerial STEMS are divided into a number of internodes by the whorls of leaves (Fig. 224). The internodes are hollow, the cavities being separated from each other b...

The asexual generation which follows from the further development of the fertilised oosphere, is, in the _Mosses_, only the sporogonium (according to one theory it is perhaps ho...

2. =The Macrospores.= The prothallium in _Salvinia_ and _Marsilia_ is still rather large, green, and capable of the independent assimilation of carbon. It projects more or less...

If we pass from these to the order PINOIDEÆ, we find the female flowers collected into catkin-like cones, which have been considered from various points of view to be sometimes...

_Taxodium distichum_ (the North American “Swamp Cypress”) has annual dwarf-branches, with distichous leaves, and cone-like “pneumathodia.” In the Tertiary period it was very com...

Order 1. =Juncaginaceæ.= The ☿, regular, _hypogynous_ flowers have the _perianth_ 3 + 3, _sepaloid_, stamens 3 + 3 (with extrorse anthers), and carpels 3 + 3 (free or united), o...

Order 3. =Gramineæ= (=Grasses=). The stems are cylindrical, generally _hollow_ with _swollen nodes_, that is, a swelling is found at the base of each leaf which apparently belon...

The primitive form resembles that of the preceding family. In it we find the typical, perfectly developed, Monocotyledonous flower, sometimes even with free carpels and with a d...

The flowers in this family are _hypogynous_ and have in part the general monocotyledonous type with 5 trimerous whorls completely developed in a regular hermaphrodite flower, an...

Perennial herbs with a very _characteristic appearance_ (Fig. 310); the stem is most often short, thick, and crowned by a _rosette_ of many leaves, which are long, often very na...

=3.= NEOTTIEÆ. The majority are terrestrial Orchids with creeping, sympodial rhizomes; the blades of the leaves are not detached from the stem at joints, and have convolute vern...

_Trees_ and _shrubs_ with small, unisexual, _monœcious_ flowers, having no perianth or a simple inconspicuous one. The ♂ and ♀ flowers are very different and generally placed in...

The majority are trees or shrubs with petiolated leaves, _stipulate_; _rough hairs_ are very frequently developed upon the leaves. The flowers are very often crowded together in...

Order 2. =Piperaceæ (Peppers).= Shrubs or herbs, often with nodose, jointed stem; leaves simple, entire, often with curved veins; stipules wanting (_Peperomia_) or intrapetiolar...

USES. Comparatively few. The only important one is _Beta vulgaris_ (from the Mediterranean basin), with its different varieties, viz. Beet-root, Cattle-beet or Red-beet, Sugar-b...

=1.= PÆONIEÆ, PEONY GROUP. This has regular, acyclic flowers with a normal, most frequently 5-leaved, imbricate calyx; large, coloured petals, and introrse anthers. Slightly per...

Order 11. =Lauraceæ= (=True Laurels=). Trees or shrubs; the leaves, always without stipules, are simple, most frequently scattered, lanceolate or elliptical, entire, penninerved...

◯=: _Thlaspi_ (Penny-Cress) has a flat, almost circular silicula, emarginate or cordate, with a well-developed wing round the edge (Fig. 406). _Iberis_ and _Teesdalia_: the race...

Order 8. =Cistaceæ.= Shrubs or herbs, natives especially of the Mediterranean region. Flowers generally in raceme-like scorpioid cymes, regular, ☿, hypogynous; sepals 5, free, _...

_Hermannia_, _Mahernia_, _Melochia_, etc., have flat petals with twisted æstivation; 5 undivided stamens, which usually are but slightly united at the base, and most frequently,...

205 genera; more than 3,000 species; especially in the Tropics.--Many are used on account of the oil, and of the pungent (aperient, poisonous, anthelmintic, etc.) properties in...

The plants belonging to this family, with very few exceptions, are trees or shrubs. The leaves are usually simple; stipules may be absent or present. The flowers in almost all t...

=1.= _Parnassia_ (about 14 species; _P. palustris_, Grass of Parnassus). The flower is slightly perigynous, and has S5, P5, 5 fertile sepal-stamens, and 5 petal-stamens, which a...

POLLINATION. _Prunus spinosa_ (Sloe, Blackthorn) is protogynous, but the stamens are developed before the stigma withers. Honey is secreted by the receptacle. _Cerasus padus_ (B...

=10.= DALBERGIEÆ. 25 genera; especially in Tropical America; the majority are trees, a few shrubs or lianes; the leaves are simple or imparipinnate. The fruit is _indehiscent_ i...

_Lythrum_ (Loose-strife). The flower is diplostemonous and 6-merous, with a long, tubular receptacle with epicalyx-teeth (Fig. 519 _c_). The 12 stamens are arranged in two tiers...

The _flower_ has =5= sepals (the median, as usual, posterior), =5= petals, =5= stamens and =2= carpels (in the median line) (Fig. 528). The calyx is often scarcely indicated. Th...

The Mistletoe (_Viscum album_, Fig. 542) is a native, evergreen plant which may be found growing on almost any of our trees (sometimes on the Oak), and, like other Loranthaceæ,...

_Primula_ (Primrose) has most frequently a vertical rhizome, bearing a rosette of leaves at its summit, and long-stalked umbels; corolla _rotate_ or slightly funnel-shaped; the...

=a.= =5-stamened.=--_Verbascum_ (Mullein, Fig. 563 _A_) has a slightly irregular, rotate corolla; five stamens (frequently covered with woolly hairs), of which the two anterior...

=A.= The throat of the corolla is without ligules, or with very small ones.--_Pulmonaria_ (Lung-wort); funnel-shaped corolla; a whorl of hairs in the corolla-throat.--_Echium_ (...

_Vinca_ (Periwinkle) has a salver-shaped corolla, which is twisted to the left in æstivation (_i.e._ the left edge of the petals is free); nectaries 2, alternating with the carp...

_Sambucus_ (Elder, Fig. 592) has _imparipinnate_ leaves and a “drupe” with 3 (-5) _stones_. Between the calyx and the style a disc remains on the apex of the fruit. _S. nigra_ w...

There is no trace of an epicalyx (in contrast to the Dipsacaceæ, which they generally so resemble). The formation of the CALYX is very varied. The calyx always consists of a ver...

In his well known artificial system Linnæus divided the Vegetable Kingdom into twenty-four classes, based upon the number, relative position and union of the stamens with regard...

A. =Cryptogamæ.= I. =Thallophyta.= 1. Class. ALGÆ. 1 Group. Cyanophyceæ. 2 „ Diatomeæ. 3 „ Chlorophyceæ. 1 Series. Conjugatæ. 2 „ Zoosporeæ. 3 „ Characeæ. 4 Group. Phæophyceæ. 5...

[2] According to the recent investigations of Winogradsky some micro-organisms (Nitrifying-bacteria) can build organic from inorganic matter. Sachs’ hypothesis that the first or...