Part 4
In 1868 the expanding power of Russia in Asia resulted in Bokhara becoming a Russian dependency. In 1873 Russia conquered Khiva. Shere Ali, now ruler of Afghanistan, became alarmed, but failing to come to an understanding with the British Government, he began to make overtures to Russia. In 1877 an offer of alliance was made by the Viceroy of India, but Shere Ali refused to admit a British Agent into Afghanistan.
Occasion:
In 1878 the Russian Government sent an envoy to Kabul to make a treaty with the Amir. A British army was also sent, but was turned back on the frontier, and hostilities were proclaimed by the Viceroy.
Course of the War:
Two British forces marched into the interior of Afghanistan, and occupied important positions. Shere Ali fled from his capital, and died in February 1879. By the _Treaty of Gandamuk_, May 1879, Yakub Khan was recognized as Amir, and he agreed that a British envoy should reside at his Court. In September 1879, the envoy, his staff, and his escort were massacred. A fresh expedition was sent under Sir F. Roberts, who entered Kabul. In 1880, Abdur Rahman, nephew of Shere Ali, returned from exile in Russia and established himself in the northern provinces. The British Government came to an agreement with him, and he was recognized as Amir. In July 1880 Ayub Khan, another son of Shere Ali, defeated a British force at Maiwand. Roberts reached Kandahar from Kabul by a rapid march, and defeated Ayub Khan on September 1, 1880. Again, in July 1881, Ayub Khan returned and took possession of Kandahar, but was finally routed by Abdur Rahman in September.
Political Result:
The frontiers of Afghanistan were delimited in agreement with Russia. Abdur Rahman’s rulership over Afghanistan was established. He extended and consolidated his dominion over the whole country, and was peacefully succeeded by his son Habibullah in 1901.
Remarks:
By the Anglo-Russia Convention of 1907, Great Britain engaged not to alter the political status of Afghanistan, and Russia recognized it as outside her sphere of influence.
THE ZULU WAR
1879
Belligerents:
Great Britain. The Zulus.
Cause:
The warlike and threatening attitude of the Zulus under Cetywayo constituted a perpetual menace to the safety of the British possessions in South Africa. The policy of Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of the Cape and High Commissioner, was the eventual Federation of all South African states under British rule, and it was essential, therefore, in his opinion, that the white inhabitants should be secured against native raids. There was a strong opinion that this could be effected without force of arms.
Occasion:
The cruelties and excesses practised by Cetywayo culminated in a raid into Natal, where women were carried off and murdered. Frere issued an ultimatum demanding the break-up of the military system of Zululand, and further that a British Resident was to be received and missionaries were not to be molested. No reply was received, and British troops entered Zululand on January 10, 1879.
Course of the War:
Frere’s application for reinforcements was refused by the British Government. But after a British defeat at Isandhlwana, January 22, 1879, which was only prevented from being a disaster by the gallant defence of Rorke’s Drift, Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent out with more troops. The Zulus were defeated at Ulundi, July 5th, and Cetywayo was taken prisoner.
Political Result:
Zululand was divided into thirteen districts, each with a separate chief, and was placed under a British Resident. It was finally annexed in 1887.
Remarks:
This war is only an episode in the extension and consolidation of the British Empire in South Africa. But it is an instance of the grave responsibilities which are involved in Imperial expansion.
In the course of the war the Prince Imperial, only son of Napoleon III, was killed, and with him died the last hopes of a restoration of the Napoleonic dynasty in France.
THE CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR
1879–1882
Belligerents:
Chile. Peru. Bolivia.
Cause:
After the blockade and bombardment of their ports by a Spanish squadron in 1865, on account of their sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with Spain, the Chileans were impressed with the necessity of possessing an adequate fleet to defend their long coast line. Ships were obtained and officers trained, so that Chile became well equipped for any future encounter.
The authorities of Bolivia seized the effects of the Chilean Nitrate Company at Antofogasta.
Occasion:
Five hundred soldiers were despatched to protect Chilean interests. The force landed and marched inland. Bolivia declared war on March 1st, Peru on April 5, 1879.
Course of the War:
The Chileans occupied every port on the Bolivian coast, and engaged the Peruvian fleet. The _Huascar_, a Peruvian ironclad, after other ships had been destroyed, did great damage under four successive commanders, but after severe fighting was forced to surrender off Angamos, and the Peruvian navy ceased to exist. After several engagements on land the Chileans succeeded in taking possession of the Bolivian seaboard and the Peruvian province of Tarapaca.
Fighting continued in 1880 when, in spite of daring resistance, the Peruvians were defeated at all points. Lima was occupied on January 17, 1881, and Callao surrendered on January 18th. The last engagement took place in September 1882, and a small army of occupation was left in Peru.
Political Result:
The Treaty of Peace was not ratified till April 1884. Peru ceded to Chile the province of Tarapaca. The provinces of Tacna and Arica were placed under Chilean authority for ten years, after which they were to decide their own future government. Chile, however, eventually evaded compliance with this agreement and retained forcible possession of the provinces. Chile retained possession of the Bolivian seaboard, thus cutting off Bolivia from access to the Pacific.
Remarks:
The aggressive attitude of Chile was a cause of complaint with the neighbouring states, and nearly led on more than one occasion to further conflict. By a Treaty signed in 1905, however, Bolivia at last ceded all claims to a seaport and strip of coast. Chile, except for a civil war in 1891, is distinguished among the South American States by its freedom from revolution and serious political unrest.
THE FRENCH EXPEDITION IN TUNIS
1881
Belligerents:
France. The Arabs of Tunis.
Cause:
Tunis under the government of the Beys formed part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1862 Italy began to take an interest in Tunis. A triple British, French, and Italian control over Tunisian finances was established in 1869. In 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, Great Britain came to a secret understanding to allow France a free hand in Tunis in return for French acquiescence in the British lease of Cyprus.
Occasion:
In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Golitta. France, under the pretext of chastising independent tribes in the north-east, determined to take action.
Course of the War:
A French force marched on the capital. The conquest of the country was not effected without serious resistance, specially at Sjax, but finally the whole country was brought completely under French jurisdiction, and the Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Bardo_, May 12, 1881, and a further _Treaty of La Marsa_, June 8, 1883, the French protectorate was established. Italy did not recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate till 1896. Protests by Turkey were ignored by France, and in 1892 the Ottoman Government was prepared to delimit the Tunis-Tripoli frontier. But there were various frontier incidents, and Turkey maintained the claim that the Tunisians were Ottoman subjects.
Remarks:
The occupation of Tunis led to an estrangement between France and Italy.
THE EGYPTIAN WAR
1882
Belligerents:
Great Britain. Egypt.
Cause:
Since 1840, while Egypt had been virtually independent, Great Britain had been regarded as the special champion of Turkish suzerainty; France as the protector of the Viceroys of Egypt. The construction of the Suez Canal, chiefly engineered by France and Great Britain, made Egypt of new importance, as the direct route to India now lay through the Red Sea. An Anglo-French financial control was established to secure payment of interest on the enormous sums lent to the Khedive Ismail. British influence became paramount, and the British Government gradually assumed the responsibility for good government in Egypt.
Occasion:
An anti-Turkish revolt under Arabi Pasha broke out, and there was a massacre of Christians in Alexandria in June 1882. The Khedive was powerless. The Powers met in conference at Constantinople, but before any decision was arrived at the British Government resolved to act.
Course of the War:
The bombardment of Alexandria took place on July 11, 1882, and the Egyptian troops set fire to the town. The Sultan was willing to enter into a military convention with Great Britain, but before it was signed the Egyptians were defeated at Tel-el Kebir by the British under Sir Garnet Wolseley, on September 13, 1882, and Arabi surrendered.
Political Result:
Arabi and other Pashas were banished to Ceylon.
The military occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, in spite of declarations to the effect that the troops would shortly be withdrawn, and in spite of protests from France, became permanent.
Remarks:
Till the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 France adopted a more or less hostile attitude with regard to Egypt. Many administrative and financial reforms were introduced by Sir Evelyn Baring, afterwards Lord Cromer. The government was practically taken out of the hands of the Egyptians, and from time to time there was trouble with a nationalist movement.
FRANCO-CHINESE WAR
1884–1885
Belligerents:
France. China.
Cause:
France, after 1870, turned its attention more and more to colonial expansion in Africa, and also in Asia, where for some time efforts had been made by the French to indemnify themselves in Indo-China for the loss of Hindustan. In 1875 a vague treaty with the Emperor of Annam gave France the protectorate. The importance was realized of finding a path of penetration towards China.
Occasion:
In 1883–1884 an attempt was made to force the Emperor of Annam to acknowledge the protectorate and to secure the delta of Tonkin. The Chinese Government, unwilling to have France as a neighbour, took the offensive.
Course of the War:
The French fleet destroyed the arsenal of Foochow, took possession of Formosa, Kelung, and the Pescadores Islands, and blockaded Southern China. A French brigade was put to flight near Langsen. Incorrect information as to the extent of the reverse caused the overthrow of Jules Ferry’s ministry. But the victories and blockade of the French fleet induced China to accept peace.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Tientsin_, June 9, 1885, China recognized the French protectorate in Tonkin and Annam, and promised to open the southern provinces to French traders.
By treaties with Siam in 1893, and Great Britain in 1892–1896, Cambodia came also under French protection, and the Empire in Indo-China was consolidated.
Remarks:
France definitely joined in the competition for Imperial expansion.
THE BURMESE WARS
1823–1826, 1851, 1885
Belligerents:
Great Britain. Burma.
Cause:
The expansion of the British Empire in India involved the subjection of neighbouring states. In addition to this there was fear of the rivalry of France in Burma.
Occasions:
(1) The conquest of Assam, which was under British protection, by the King of Ava in 1823, and the attack by him on a British fort at Shapur, led to the declaration of war against Burma.
(2) The insults offered to the British flag at Rangoon by the King of Ava, led to the fresh outbreak of war in 1851.
(3) King Thibaw’s despotic rule and his design to enter into an agreement with France, led to the last Ultimatum in 1885.
Course of the Wars:
(I) A British force was defeated at Ramu, and the first two attempts to reach Ava failed. Martaban and Tennasserin were taken by the British, and the Burmese were expelled from Rangoon in December 1824. Prome was reached in April 1825. Myede was entered in December. In 1826 Sir Archibald Campbell pushed on to Yandabu, forty-five miles from Ava. By the treaty of peace February 24, 1826, the British gained the provinces of Assam, Arakan, and the coast of Tenasserim.
(II) In April, 1852, as the King of Ava refused to come to terms, Rangoon, Martaban, and Bassein were taken by Dalhousie. Prome was taken in October, and Pegu in November 1852. No treaty was signed but the King was prepared to accept an accomplished fact.
(III) In 1885 the British Ultimatum took King Thibaw by surprise, and within a fortnight he surrendered unconditionally when the British force approached his capital. Guerilla warfare continued for nearly two years.
Political Result:
By the proclamation of January 1, 1886, the whole of Burma was annexed, and Thibaw was deported to India.
Remarks:
The conquest of Burma was affected, not so much because of the misrule of the Kings of Ava as from a motive of Imperial expansion and the desire to forestall the designs of France.
THE SERBO-BULGARIAN WAR
1885
Belligerents:
Bulgaria. Serbia.
Cause:
The Treaty of Berlin of 1878 left abundant material for future conflict in European Turkey. Bulgaria was confined to the north of the Balkan mountains, and Eastern Roumelia was still under the Sultan. Prince Alexander of Battenberg, the ruler of Bulgaria, in September 1885, marched south and occupied Philippopolis. The Sultan protested, the Czar was indignant, but Great Britain approved the Union of Roumelia with Bulgaria, and the danger of war passed away. The success of Bulgaria whetted the appetite of Milan, who had become King of Serbia in 1882. With a view to strengthening the prestige of his dynasty he adopted a spirited foreign policy and awaited an opportunity.
Occasion:
Frontier troubles and tariff disputes between the two countries had embittered relations, and the King of Serbia declared war, thinking he would have a triumphal march to Sofia, the Russian officers having withdrawn from the Bulgarian army.
Course of the War:
The Bulgarians gained a decisive victory at Slivnitsa on November 16, 1885, and occupied Pirot, and the road to Belgrade lay open before them. But Austria intervened on behalf of Serbia, and after fourteen days’ fighting an armistice was signed.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Buckarest_, March 3, 1886, the _status quo_ was restored; Bulgaria gained nothing, but established her right to Eastern Roumelia. Owing to Russian intrigue Alexander was forced to abdicate and was succeeded by Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria.
Remarks:
Bulgaria became gradually the most advanced and formidable state in the Balkans. In 1908, at the time of the revolutionary crisis in Turkey and the annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina by Austria, Ferdinand declared himself Czar of a completely independent Bulgaria.
Milan abdicated in 1889, and his son Alexander became King of Serbia. He and his wife were murdered in 1903 and Peter Karageorgevich accepted the crown.
THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR
1894–1895
Belligerents:
Japan. China and Korea.
Cause:
Japan adopting Western ideas developed into a powerful state with surprising rapidity during the last fifty years of the nineteenth century. The growth of her armaments and an ambition for expansion necessarily followed. China, on the other hand, did not welcome the influence of the West, which rapid transit and communication had brought into Asia. The weakness and misgovernment of Korea was a perpetual temptation to her neighbours. Japan invited China to co-operate in demanding reforms in Korea, but China refused and Japan acted alone.
Occasion:
In July 1894 Japan issued an Ultimatum calling on Korea to accept a Japanese programme of reforms. Korea temporized, and Seoul, the capital, was taken without difficulty, the Emperor being made a prisoner. China immediately intervened.
Course of the War:
By land and sea the Japanese, who had been trained by European officers, were easily victorious. Asan was occupied, a victory was gained off the Yalu River, and the Japanese marched on Yingkow. Port Arthur, on the Liao-Tung peninsula, was captured, finally Wei-hai-Wei fell, and Li Hung Chang, the Chinese Minister, sued for peace.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Shimonoseki_, China ceded to Japan the Liao Tung peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands, and the indemnity was fixed at 200 million taels. But Russia, France, and Germany intervened, and ordered Japan to surrender the Liao Tung Peninsula on the ground that Port Arthur threatened the independence of Peking. But the insincerity of the intervention of the Western Powers was revealed in 1897, when China was compelled to lease Kiao Chow to Germany, Port Arthur to Russia, Wei-hai-Wei to Great Britain, while France obtained a concession near Tonkin. Only the Italian claim for the port of Sanmen was refused by China.
Remarks:
The encroachments of the Western Powers evoked intense indignation in China. The rivalry in the exploitation of the Far East by the West had begun in real earnest.
THE ITALO-ABYSSINIAN WAR
1895–1896
Belligerents:
Italy. Abyssinia.
Cause:
Having become a united nation, Italy soon developed Imperialistic ambitions. She looked towards Tunis, but was forestalled there by France in 1881. In 1884, being secure from an attack by land, by an alliance with Austria concluded in 1882, and being assured by Great Britain that the occupation by a friendly Power of certain positions on the Red Sea littoral would not be regarded unfavourably, the Italian Government decided on a forward policy in Africa.
Occasion:
After a preliminary expedition in 1887, which was unsuccessful and had to be recalled, a treaty was made with Menelek, after the death of King John of Abyssinia, which was interpreted in Italy as involving Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia. Italy supported Menelek against his rival Ras Mangascia.
Course of the War:
Italian victories over the Dervishes at Agordat (1893) and Cassala (1894) encouraged the ambition of Italy for a vast African Empire. On a further Italian advance in 1895 the Abyssinians united in their resistance. Menelek repudiated all idea of a protectorate, and General Baratieri suffered a disastrous defeat at Adowah, March 1, 1896.
Political Result:
The Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia was abandoned, and by the Treaty of Peace signed in September 1900, the frontiers of the Italian colony were reduced.
Remarks:
The attempt on the part of Italy to hunt with the lions in colonial aggrandizement ended in humiliation. Italy was now able to devote its attention to much-needed internal reforms. But the Imperialist policy only died down to be revived later.
THE WAR IN THE SOUDAN
1896–1898
Belligerents:
Great Britain--Egypt. Arabs and Dervishes.
Cause:
The Soudan had fallen into the hands of rebellious tribes under the Mahdi. In 1883 on Egyptian force under General Hicks had been defeated at El Obeid, and General Baker was also defeated in his attempt to relieve the Tokar garrison. The successes of a British force near Suakin were rendered useless by the refusal of the British Government to advance further. Early in 1884 it was decided to despatch General Gordon, who had an intimate knowledge of the country, to bring away Europeans from the Soudan. On arriving at Khartoum he was cut off from all communication with Egypt, Berber and the Bahr-el-Gazal province having fallen into the hands of the Mahdi. The relief expedition was sent out too late to save him. Khartoum fell, and Gordon was killed on January 25, 1885. The whole of the Soudan remained under the rule of the Mahdi for thirteen years. The British Government came to the conclusion that Egypt could never be considered permanently secure so long as a hostile Power was in occupation of Khartoum.
Occasion:
After the Italian defeat at Adowah it was decided to create a diversion in Italian interests, and orders were given to occupy the province of Dongola. Rumours of the crumbling power of the Khalifa, who had succeeded the Mahdi, strengthened the idea that it was a favourable opportunity to advance into the Soudan.
Course of the War:
British and Egyptian troops under Kitchener occupied Dongola September 23, 1896. In 1897 desert railways were constructed, and Abu Hamed and Berber were wrested from the dervishes. In 1898 reinforcements of British troops were sent from Cairo. Omdurman, the stronghold of Mahdism, was captured on September 2, 1898, and two days later Khartoum was occupied.
Political Result:
By an agreement between the British and Egyptian Governments in January 1899, the Soudan was placed under their joint control, the Governor-General to be appointed by the Khedive on British recommendation.
Remarks:
The arrival of Major Marchand at Fashoda, in September 1898, where he hoisted the French flag, created a momentary excitement and talk of war, but the British Government adopted a firm attitude, and he received orders to withdraw.
No opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian agreement was encountered in Europe. The economic and agricultural development of the Soudan has since progressed rapidly.
Nearly a million square miles were added to the territory under British rule.
THE TURKO-GREEK WAR
1897
Belligerents:
Turkey. Greece.
Cause:
Crete, which formed part of the Ottoman Dominion, had been granted a Constitution in 1868. A revolt in 1889 caused the Sultan to limit the powers of the assembly and supersede the Christian governor by a Mussulman. Disturbances broke out between Christians and Mohammedans in the succeeding years. In February 1897 the Christians proclaimed union with Greece, and Colonel Vassos was sent with a force to occupy the island in the King’s name. The Powers intervened, and the Admirals occupied Canea. Neither the Sultan nor the King wanted war. The King was under the impression that the Powers would prevent it.
Occasion:
Enthusiasm for war which was not accompanied by any sort of military organization or preparation grew up in Greece. When armed bands crossed the frontier into Macedonia, Turkey immediately declared war (April 17, 1897).
Course of the War:
The Greek fleet, on which great hopes had been placed, effected nothing. The Turkish forces occupied Larissa, advanced across Thessaly, defeated the Greeks all along the line, and on May 17, 1897, the victory of Domokos opened to the Turks the pass which leads down to Lamia. The Powers intervened, and a armistice was signed.
Political Result:
By the treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, December 4, 1897, the Turks evacuated Thessaly, and certain strategic alterations were made in the frontier. Greece paid an indemnity of four millions, and accepted the European control of her finances. Crete continued to be the arena of periodic conflict. Prince George of Greece was appointed High Commissioner of the Powers under a new Constitution, but he resigned in 1906. While virtually Greek the island remained under the suzerainty of the Sultan.
Remarks:
This was only one of the many Balkan conflicts. The intervention of the Powers was invoked in order to check any increase in the dominion of the Sultan. But owing to their own conflicting ambitions and the inherent racial complications in the Balkans, they never at any time reached a solution of the problems involved.
THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
1897–1898
Belligerents:
Spain. The United States of America.
Cause: