Part 5
The decline of the Spanish Colonial Empire (which had reached its highest point under Philip II at the end of the sixteenth century) continued throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth century, and was hastened by the misgovernment, corruption, and incessant outbreaks of revolution in Spain itself. One by one by means of revolution, the Spanish-American colonies had gained their independence. The policy of the Holy Alliance and of Metternich was to check the growth of Constitutional government in Europe. King Ferdinand of Spain was in conflict with the constitutional movement, and civil war prevailed. In 1823 France intervened in Spain on behalf of Ferdinand, and French troops entered Madrid. Canning, on behalf of Great Britain, prohibited the conquest by France or her allies of the Spanish colonies, and formally recognized their independence in 1824. Cuba and other islands were the last of the Spanish possessions. During the remainder of the nineteenth century Spain continued periodically to be torn and weakened by internal disturbances.
Occasion:
In order to quell the revolts in Cuba more effectually the milder policy of Martinez Campos was exchanged in 1897 for the ruthless and brutal rule of General Weyler. The United States were deeply stirred by the torture and starvation of their neighbours. General Weyler was recalled. But when the American cruiser _Maine_ was blown up in the port of Havana, the United States demanded the evacuation of Cuba by Spain. Spain refused.
Course of the War:
Two Spanish fleets were destroyed in May and July 1898, and American land forces in Cuba, the Philippines, and Porto Rico won those islands with comparatively little struggle.
Political Result:
By the treaty of peace signed at Paris, December 1898, Spain surrendered practically all her colonies. The Caroline Islands in the Pacific were sold to Germany in 1899.
Remarks:
This was the last chapter in the extinction of a vast colonial Empire, which was dissolved owing to the spirit of independence in its various states and the bad government in the Mother Country.
THE BOER WAR
1881, 1899–1902
Belligerents:
Great Britain. The Transvaal and Orange Free State.
Cause:
The premature annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 was resented by the majority of the Boers. In 1880 a formidable rebellion broke out, a small British force was sent out which met with determined opposition at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and on February 27, 1881, was defeated at Majuba Hill. The Boers regained their independence under the suzerainty of Great Britain.
Cecil Rhodes, with vast ideas of Imperial expansion, became the dominating influence in South Africa. In 1884 Bechuanaland was annexed. In 1889 Rhodes founded the British South Africa Company. In 1896, after a successful conflict with the Matabeles, Buluwayo was captured and Matabeleland added to the territory of Rhodesia. In 1886 gold had been discovered in the Transvaal, and a great cosmopolitan city arose at Johannesburg. This resulted in an enormous influx of Europeans and the decision of the Boers to exclude them from any share in the political life of the country. Behind Rhodes, who became Prime Minister of Cape Colony in 1895, great financial interests grew up and exerted considerable influence. Under the presidency of Kruger the Boers adopted a more and more hostile attitude towards the Outlanders. In 1895 the Jameson Raid, which was connived at by the authorities, revived Kruger’s power, which had been waning, and made the Boers arm in preparation for a further surprise.
Occasion:
A promise of intervention was sent by the British Government in reply to a petition from the Outlanders in 1899. Attempts to reach a compromise with Kruger failed. Both sides were preparing for war, and the mining interests exerted great pressure. On October 9, 1899, the Transvaal issued an Ultimatum.
Course of the War:
The Boers invaded Natal and Cape Colony; Ladysmith, Mafeking, and Kimberley were invested. British defeats at Magersfontein, Stormberg, and Colenso (December 1899) led to Lord Roberts being sent out to supersede General Buller. Kimberley and Ladysmith were relieved, Bloemfontein fell. In May 1900 Mafeking was relieved, and in June Johannesburg and Pretoria were occupied. The attempt to insist on unconditional surrender prolonged the war for two more years.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Vereeniging_, May 1902, the Transvaal lost its independence. The Orange Free State had been annexed in 1900. Under pressure from the financial interests Chinese were introduced to work the gold-mines. This was one of the chief reasons for the fall of the Conservative Government in 1906. Campbell-Bannerman, who became Prime Minister, solved the problem of the future of the Transvaal by granting them full self-government, and the importation of Chinese was stopped.
Remarks:
The origin of the war can be directly traced to far less worthy causes than that of redressing the grievances of the Outlanders. The war was unnecessarily prolonged by an underestimate of the strength of the Boers and the desire to humiliate them. But the grant of self-government was the act that saved the war from being barren in results and from being the precursor of further trouble. The Union of South Africa was established in 1909.
The Powers of Europe, with the exception of Italy, adopted an unfriendly attitude towards Great Britain during the war.
THE BOXER RISING IN CHINA
1899–1900
Belligerents:
Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France, and Japan. China.
Cause:
The humiliating results of the war of 1894–5 (p. 72) killed the reform movement in China and brought the reactionary party, headed by the Dowager-Empress, back to power. A society called the Boxers spread very rapidly through the provinces, preaching death to foreigners and receiving official support.
Occasion:
Attacks on Europeans began in 1899, and became very frequent in the early months of 1900. In May the Ministers at Peking asked for additional guards. The Boxers surrounded the city, and Admiral Seymour’s attempt to reach the capital was frustrated. The destruction of the Taku Fort by the Allies was treated as a declaration of war, and Chinese Imperial troops joined the Boxers.
Course of the War:
The settlements at Tientsin were rescued by a Russian force. An allied force made its way through from Taku, and forced an entry into Pekin. In August a relief column of 18,000 allied troops defeated the Chinese in several engagements and marched on Pekin. The legations had for eight weeks withstood a siege. The Chinese Government gave foreigners twenty-four hours to leave the capital. The German Minister was murdered in the street. The British Legation formed the refuge of all those who were driven out of their places of retreat. When the relieving force arrived the Chinese only made a faint-hearted defence. The Empress fled, the legations were relieved, and Pekin was occupied.
Political Result:
By the peace protocol, which was signed on September 7, 1901, the punishment of the ringleaders was demanded: the forts between Pekin and the sea were dismantled, permanent guards for the legations were established, and a large indemnity was fixed.
Remarks:
Official intercourse with the Chinese Government was established on a more satisfactory basis. But serious trouble in the Far East and internal disturbances in China itself continued.
THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
1904–1905
Belligerents:
Russia. Japan.
Cause:
When Port Arthur, which Japan had been forced to surrender in 1895, was seized by Russia there was deep indignation in Japan. In 1902 a treaty of alliance was concluded between Great Britain and Japan. Russia undertook to evacuate Manchuria, and although the withdrawal of troops began in 1903, instead of continuing the evacuation Russia demanded new concessions. In Korea Russian speculators obtained concessions, and influential members of the Russian Court were interested in the enterprise. Japan protested.
Occasion:
A treaty regulating the position in Manchuria and Korea was suggested by Japan, but Russia refused to recognize Japan’s paramount influence in Korea, and after several months of fruitless negotiation Japan issued an Ultimatum in February 1904.
Course of the War:
After successful initial encounters on the part of Japan, Port Arthur was surrendered on January 1, 1905. After a Japanese victory at Mukden, the Russians retreated. In October 1904 the Russian fleet, coming round from the Baltic, opened fire on a group of Hull fishing smacks in crossing the Dogger Bank, mistaking them for torpedo boats. The incident roused considerable indignation in Britain, but the Czar expressed his regrets. The matter was referred to a commission of admirals in Paris, and compensation was awarded for the damage done. On May 27, 1905 the Russian fleet was annihilated by Admiral Togo at Tsushima. The Japanese landed a force in Sakhalin, but, both sides being exhausted and anxious for peace, negotiations were opened in August 1905.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Portsmouth_, August 1905, the claims of Japan in Korea were recognized; Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and ceded the Liao-Tung peninsula (including Port Arthur) and the southern half of Sakhalin to Japan. The payment of an indemnity, which had been the chief obstacle to the conclusion of peace, was waived by Japan. The moderation of the Japanese demands made a good impression in the world, but was resented in Japan itself.
Remarks:
This was a war of pure aggression, backed by high financial speculation on the part of Russia. The easy triumph of Japan was a surprise. But she was fighting for definite national objects, while the Russian people knew nothing of the cause and aims of the war. Russia spent much money in subsequent years in restoring her lost armaments. From this time on the reform movements and revolutionary spirit in Russia grew rapidly.
TURKO-ITALIAN WAR
1911–1912
Belligerents:
Italy. Turkey.
Cause:
After the agreements with regard to North Africa between Great Britain and France, Italy made up her mind that the time was favourable for a decisive move with a view to expansion, and proceeded to make careful preparations for military action early in 1911. The position in Tripoli was made the subject of heated discussion in the Press, and the Turks were charged with showing gross unfairness to Italian residents. The possible designs of Germany in North Africa also induced the Italian Government to take advantage of the first opportunity for an offensive step.
Occasion:
The Turks, foreseeing danger, sent war stores and munitions to Tripoli, and on September 29, 1911, the Italians, with their fleet ready and their troops embarked, declared war.
Course of the War:
On September 30th, Tripoli was blockaded and occupied by the Italians on October 5th; Benghazi fell on October 20th. In spite of the publication of a decree annexing Tripoli as a province of Italy, the advance of the invaders was kept in check. Austria refused to allow operations in the Adriatic. Russia would not permit the blockade of the Dardanelles. Fighting continued with indeterminate results and in a desultory manner until a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ouchy on October 15, 1912.
Result:
By the _Treaty of Lausanne_, October 15, 1912, Turkish forces were withdrawn from Tripoli and Cyrenaica, the Italians promised to withdraw from the occupied islands of the Ægean, and a commercial agreement was concluded between the two countries. There was no recognition by the Turkish Government of Italian sovereignty in Tripoli. It was enough for Italy that her sovereignty was recognized by the Powers. This was done, France delaying her assent until Italy surrendered certain privileges in Morocco.
Remarks:
Italy’s aggressive action was prompted by a desire not to be left behind in the competition for territorial acquisitions in Africa.
FIRST BALKAN WAR
1912–1913
Belligerents:
Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro. Turkey.
Cause:
Even after the deposition of the Sultan, Abdul Hamid, and the triumph of the Young Turks in the revolution of 1908 the misgovernment of Turkey did not cease, more especially in Macedonia, where the European Powers had entirely failed to secure any reforms, but produced an intolerable situation in the Balkan Peninsula. Despairing of the successful intervention of the Powers the Balkan States determined to take matters into their own hands. For the first time an alliance was formed between Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia for the purpose of destroying the Turkish Empire in Europe.
Occasion:
In September 1912 the Powers, through Austria, Hungary, and Russia strongly deprecated the outbreak of war. The Allies simultaneously handed in to the Turkish Government an Ultimatum demanding certain specified reforms. No reply was sent. The Turks underestimated the strength of their opponents, and hoped to detach Greece. War broke out October 17th.
Course of the War:
The Turkish forces were completely overwhelmed. They were defeated by the Serbians at Kumanovo, October 24, 1912, and Uskub was occupied: the Greeks drove the enemy north and occupied Salonika: and the Bulgarians defeated the Ottoman army at Lule Burgas, October 31st, and advanced to Chatalja. After an armistice and an abortive attempt of the Powers to secure peace, the war broke out again. Adrianople fell March 26, 1913, and the Turks submitted.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of London_ Bulgaria was given a frontier from Enos on the Mediterranean to Midia on the Black Sea. The future of Albania was to be decided by the Allies and Turkey ceded the island of Crete to Greece.
Remarks:
Serious disputes as to the disposal of the spoils won from Turkey led immediately to the outbreak of war among the Allies.
SECOND BALKAN WAR
1913
Belligerents:
Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Roumania. Bulgaria. Turkey.
Cause:
In February 1912 a treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Serbia, whereby it was agreed that North-west Macedonia should go to Serbia, another part to Bulgaria, and the zone lying between these two should be submitted to the arbitration of the Czar. In December 1912, in the First Balkan War, Austria protested against the occupation by Serbia of Durazzo on the Adriatic, and of Scutari by Montenegro. Serbia declared that Bulgaria did not adequately support her in resisting the Austrian demand, felt impelled to claim more territory in Macedonia, and refused to carry out the provisions of the treaty with Bulgaria. Serbia was ready to arbitrate. Russia was inclined to support the Serbian claim. Bulgaria hesitated.
Occasion:
While the dispute was still in the balance the aggressive party in Bulgaria got the upper hand, and war was declared against Serbia and Greece in June 24, 1913, only a few months after the cessation of hostilities in the First Balkan War.
Course of the War:
The Bulgarians found themselves invaded on four frontiers. While they were being driven back by Serbia and Greece, the Turks repudiated the Treaty of London and retook Adrianople, and Roumania advanced from the north and without striking a blow annexed a large slice of territory in the Dobrudja. Bulgaria was obliged to yield.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Bukarest_, August 10, 1913, Serbia acquired a large district of South-east Macedonia, Greece obtained Kavalla, and Roumania was given possession of the territory her troops had occupied.
By the _Treaty of Constantinople_, August 1913, Bulgaria ceded back to Turkey more than half of the territory won in the previous war, including Adrianople.
Remarks:
Bulgaria being again restricted in territory felt she had been betrayed by the Powers, who did nothing to enforce the engagements of the Treaty of London. Her rivals, Serbia and Greece, gained at her expense. On the other hand, Bulgarian responsibility for the outbreak of the second war was undoubted.
The European Powers, by acting together, prevented the Balkan conflict from spreading into a European War. But the Treaty of Bukarest was no settlement, and was a signal exposure of their inability to solve the Balkan problem, which was destined to be the spark for a world-wide conflagration.
IMPORTANT TREATIES
(OTHER THAN THOSE ALREADY MENTIONED)
The _Treaty of Vienna_, June 9, 1815.
_Second Treaty of Paris_, November 20, 1815, Signed by Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, France at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars.
France gave up certain fortresses on the frontier but retained Alsace-Lorraine. Payment of 700 million francs was exacted from France. The greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw fell to Russia, Posen to Prussia, and Cracow became a republic. Prussia got back nearly all her old possessions, and there was a reconstruction of German States under a Confederation. Holland, Belgium, and Luxemburg were established as an independent kingdom under the House of Orange: Switzerland was extended and her integrity guaranteed: Sardinia obtained Genoa and other territory: Austria received an extension of territory in North Italy and on the coast of the Adriatic, and became the dominant state in the German Confederation. The Pope and the King of the Two Sicilies regained their former possessions.
[The foregoing record of wars serves to show to what a small extent this treaty secured the settlement of European territorial problems.]
_The Rushe-Bagot Treaty_, April 1817, between Great Britain and the United States. The two powers agreed to withdraw their battleships from the Great Lakes.
It may be noted that the absence of armaments on the whole Canadian frontier cannot be said to have endangered the relations between the two countries in view of the fact that the Anglo-American peace centenary was celebrated in 1915.
_The Treaty of Washington_, May 8, 1871, between Great Britain and the United States. The north-western boundary was finally delimited: an attempt was made to settle the Canadian Fishery dispute, and it was agreed to refer the Alabama Claims to a tribunal of arbitration, which subsequently fixed the sum to be paid over by Great Britain as indemnity.
_The Triple Alliance_ in 1882 was the result of Italy joining the alliance between Germany and Austria, which had grown out of the support given to Austria as against Russia at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Italy having become estranged from France after the occupation of Tunis in 1881. The Triple Alliance was renewed for five years in 1887 and in 1891, and again in 1902 it was extended for a term of twelve years.
_The Berlin Act._ The outcome of the Conference of Berlin, 1884–5, at which fourteen Powers were represented. The respective spheres of influence of the European Powers in Africa were delimited. The neutrality of the Congo Free State was recognized, and it was established as an independent State under the sovereignty of the King of the Belgians. An area was marked out in which there should be free trade, which should be excluded from effects of disputes between the signatory Powers, and be placed under the rule of neutrality.
The latter stipulation has, however, not been carried out.
_The Suez Canal Convention_ signed by nine Powers at Constantinople, October 29, 1888. Lesseps obtained the preliminary concession for the construction of the Canal in 1856. The Canal was opened in 1869. Disraeli bought four million pounds’ worth of shares from the Khedive on behalf of the British Government in 1875. The Convention ensured that the Canal should always be open to vessels of commerce and war without distinction of flag. Great Britain signed with a reservation, but in the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 declared her adherence to the Convention and agreed to its being put into force.
_The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty_, November 18, 1901, between Great Britain and the United States, gave the United States right of control in time of war of the Panama Canal. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which established a joint Anglo-American protectorate over the Canal was thereby abrogated.
_The Anglo-Japanese Alliance._ Treaties signed in London January 30, 1902, and August 12, 1905. The integrity and independence of China was recognized. If either Great Britain or Japan should be attacked and involved in a war with two Powers, they engaged mutually to assist one another. The aim of the alliance was officially defined as “the consolidation and maintenance of general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India.” In 1911 the treaty was revised, a clause stipulating that there was no obligation to go to war with a Power with whom a treaty of arbitration was in force. This removed the danger of Great Britain being involved in a war between Japan and the United States.
_The Argentine-Chile Treaty_, 1902. From 1840 to 1900 constant boundary disputes arose between the two countries, which invariably led to war. At last the people themselves in both countries decided by large majorities to negotiate a peaceful settlement of the dispute. The delimitation of the frontier was carried out by a mixed commission, and to commemorate the treaty an immense statue of Christ was erected on a high pass in the Andes on the boundary line.
_The Anglo-French Convention_, April 8, 1904.
This removed outstanding causes of friction between the two countries, and was the foundation of the Entente.
Newfoundland fisheries and West African boundary problems were settled: the Siamese, New Hebrides, and Madagascar disputes were settled: Egypt was declared exclusively under British protection, and Morocco was left to France. A Franco-Spanish Convention was concluded in October of the same year with regard to Morocco. To both these treaties secret clauses were attached which amounted virtually to the prospective partition of Morocco by France and Spain.
_The Agreement of Karlstadt_, September 23, 1905.
The Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved, and Norway recognized as an independent kingdom.
The movement in favour of separation had grown rapidly from 1899. It was resisted by the King of Sweden. A plebiscite in Norway declared in favour of it, and agreement was reached without any armed conflict.
_The Algeciras Act_, April 7, 1906, agreed to by thirteen Powers, was based on the sovereignty, independence, integrity, and economic liberty of Morocco. The provisions concerned the organization of police, regulation of taxation, customs, etc. This Act was disregarded by France in 1911, when a French force was sent to Fez and occupied the country.
_The Anglo-Russian Convention_, September 23, 1907.
Persia was divided so as to give Great Britain and Russia spheres of influence with a neutral zone between. (Persia was not a party to the treaty.) An agreement was come to with regard to Afghanistan and Thibet, settling all points where dispute might arise.
_The Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty_, April 4, 1908.
By this Treaty differences between Great Britain and the United States which do not affect the vital interests, independence, or honour of either country, or which do not concern the interests of third parties are referred to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague.
INDEX OF TREATIES
PAGE Adrianople, Treaty of 15, 17