Part 3
By the Queen’s proclamation of November 1858 the government of India was taken over by the British Government. The Queen declared that all her Indian subjects should be protected in the exercise of their religious observances. Excessive measures of repression which had been resorted to were stopped.
Remarks:
Queen Victoria was styled Empress of India at the instance of Disraeli in 1876. Various reforms have been instituted in Indian administration tentatively allowing Indians some share in the government of the country. But the problem of British rule in India is not one which is capable of final solution.
THE CHINESE WAR
1857–1860
Belligerents:
Great Britain, France. China.
Cause:
The increasing commercial ambitions of Western Powers in the East led Great Britain and France to insist on the establishment of fair and equitable terms of trade. The Chinese Government was in the hands of the Tatars known as the Taipings, who, by their successful rebellion, had overthrown the Manchu dynasty.
Occasion:
The refusal of the Chinese Government to redress long-standing grievances or to allow the diplomatic representatives of the Western Powers to reside in Peking; the seizure of the crew of the British ship _Arrow_ off Canton, and the refusal of the Chinese Governor to apologize or surrender the men, and the murder of a French missionary in Kwangsi brought things to a head.
Course of the War:
Canton was taken by the British in December 1857. The Taku Forts fell in May 1858 and Tientsin was occupied. Negotiations were attempted but failed. An allied force of British and French landed in 1860, marched on Peking, and the Chinese yielded.
Political Result:
By the treaty of October 24, 1860, the Chinese paid an indemnity of eight million taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior was granted, and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity. By the customs tariff agreed upon the import of opium was legalized. In the course of 1861 British, French, and Russian legations were permanently established at Peking, and in the following years the same right was conceded to other European nations. By treaties with Russia in the same year China ceded all its territory north of the Amur to Russia, and in this territory Vladivostock was founded.
Good relations having been established, the Chinese Government, with the assistance of Gordon, carried out a successful campaign against the Taipings, and the Manchu dynasty was restored.
Remarks:
This was the opening of the door into China, and from henceforth the Western Powers began to compete for commercial and territorial prizes in the Chinese Empire.
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR
1861–1865
Belligerents:
The Northern states of North America. The Southern states of North America.
Cause:
The cultivation of cotton progressed under very different conditions in the North and South. In the North the white man had to work vigorously to overcome the disadvantages of the soil. In the South the negro labourer could be used with profit to his owner, and was held as a slave. By 1860 the thirteen original states were enlarged to thirty-three. The territories of the North-east found their prosperity in free labour, the South throve on the cotton crop and continued to exploit negro labour. The Southern states gradually combined together, and between 1830 and 1850 gained a predominant voice in the control of Federal affairs. The North also became consolidated, and a strong movement against slavery grew up, chiefly owing to the efforts of W. Lloyd Garrison. A new Republican party gained strength in its opposition to the dominating differences of the South, and sectional political differences were intensified. The prospect of the abolition of slavery was not the only issue. The South resented the idea that coercive measures might be used to keep the lower South in the Union. They believed this to be an attack on the doctrine of the sovereignty of states. A widespread feeling in favour of secession grew up.
Occasion:
The Republican party triumphed at the election, and Abraham Lincoln became President in November, 1860. South Carolina seceded, ten other states followed, and the Confederate States were established under the Presidency of Jefferson Davis. The attack on Fort Sumter by the Confederates on April 4, 1861, made war inevitable.
Course of the War:
The North was defeated at Bull Run in July 1861, but captured forts Henry and Donelson in 1862, and gained a victory at Shiloh. At Richmond, and later at Fredericksburg, the North was defeated. Lincoln issued his proclamation of Emancipation on January 1, 1863. The South, under Lee, were defeated in the greatest battle of the war at Gettysburg, on July 4th. In 1864 there were further victories for the North under Grant at Spottsylvania and Coldharbour; and Atlanta and Savanah were captured. In 1865 Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated by the Confederates and Lee surrendered. On May 26th the war came to an end, after a desperate struggle of nearly four years.
Political Result:
The Union was restored and slavery abolished. Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, and his wise counsel was lost therefore for the difficult work of reconstruction which followed the war.
Remarks:
Great Britain declared neutrality at the outset, and thereby implicitly, though not explicitly, recognized the Southern Confederacy as a belligerent Power. There was much sympathy with the South among the governing class, but the people were on the side of the North. The Trent affair brought Great Britain and America very near to war. (See _Treaty of Washington_, p. 94.)
FRENCH EXPEDITION IN MEXICO
1862–1867
Belligerents:
France. Mexican Republicans.
Cause:
From 1789, the date of the first conspiracy against Spain, down to 1857, when a Constitution was promulgated, Mexico was in a state of permanent warfare. In 1861 France, Spain, and Great Britain adopted joint measures against the republic in order to get better protection for their subjects and their property. In 1862 Great Britain and Spain withdrew. But Napoleon III conceived the project of establishing a monarchy in Mexico under his patronage, and so increasing French ascendancy beyond the Atlantic.
Occasion:
The financial misdemeanours of the Mexican Government were made the pretext for the advance of French troops into Mexico in 1862.
Course of the War:
The French force was checked in May 1862, and further reinforcements were sent out. They advanced again in February 1863, and entered Mexico City in June. A Provisional Government was established, and the crown was offered to Maximilian of Austria, who accepted it and reached Mexico City in June 1864. Juarez, the republican leader, was driven into the extreme north of the country. But his resistance was by no means overcome. Napoleon III bound himself to keep a force in Mexico for the protection of Maximilian. In 1865, on the restoration of peace after the Civil War in the United States, the Government of Washington refused to acknowledge any authority in Mexico but that of Juarez. The French were obliged to withdraw in 1867, and Maximilian was left to his fate. The Juarists got the upper hand, and Maximilian was executed.
Political Result:
Juarez, as President of Mexico, was succeeded by Diaz in 1877; and order was maintained for a generation.
Remarks:
This foolish enterprise damaged the reputation of Napoleon III. He was regarded as a political adventurer, and became increasingly unpopular in his own country.
BRAZILIAN WAR
1864–1870
Belligerents:
Brazil, Uruguay, Argentine Republic. Paraguay.
Cause:
Brazil was part of the Portuguese possessions until 1822, when it declared its independence. The Emperors Pedro I and II had frequent trouble not only with the republican movement in Brazil itself, but with the neighbouring states, with whom they were constantly at war. In 1855 Pedro II sent a squadron up the Parana to adjust several questions outstanding with the republic of Paraguay. Although certain rights were granted to Brazil the Government of Paraguay threw every obstacle in the way to prevent a settlement.
Occasion:
In 1864 Lopez, the ambitious dictator of Paraguay, without declaring war, captured a Brazilian vessel, and invaded Brazil and the Argentine. Uruguay joined them in a triple alliance of defence against Paraguay.
Course of the War:
Owing to the strong natural position of Paraguay, and the obstinacy of Lopez, the war was drawn out with constant fighting and great sacrifice of life in addition to vast expenditure, until 1870, when it was terminated by the capture and death of Lopez.
Political Result:
External troubles ceased, but the republican movement gained in strength until 1889, when Pedro was deposed and a republic declared in Brazil.
Remarks:
The slaughter in this war was so terrific that the population of Paraguay was reduced from 1,337,439 to 221,079.
This is only one example of the very frequent disturbances, both internal and external, in the South American continent during the course of the century.
THE DANISH WAR
1864
Belligerents:
Denmark. Prussia and Austria.
Cause:
The strong revival of nationalism in Germany after the Napoleonic Wars spread to the German inhabitants of the Duchies of Schleswig Holstein, who desired in 1848 to be incorporated as a single constitutional state in the German Federation. The Danish crown could be inherited by female heirs, but in the Duchies the Salic law had never been repealed. This made complications with regard to the succession. Frederick VII of Denmark endeavoured to preserve the Duchy as an integral part of Denmark. An insurrection broke out, and Prussia intervened by marching troops into Holstein. Under pressure from other Powers the King of Prussia signed a convention at Malmoe practically yielding all the Danish demands, and in 1850, by the _Treaty of Berlin_, peace was restored between Prussia and Denmark, but without any settlement of the vexed question. In 1852 Great Britain intervened with a proposal without success. In 1854 the King of Denmark promulgated special Constitutions for the Duchies as well as a common Constitution for the whole Monarchy. The German Confederation rejected this as the Diets of the Duchies had not been consulted. The question became of European interest: its complexity prevented any settlement being reached. Bismarck alone was quite determined on eventual annexation, and Denmark was equally determined not to yield.
Occasion:
After further diplomatic disputes Austrian and Prussian troops entered Schleswig in February 1864.
Course of the War:
The allied troops broke through the frontier fortifications and occupied the greater part of the Danish mainland. The Danes were overthrown in the island of Alsen, and the German flag carried to the northern extremity of Denmark. A conference was opened in London, April 1864, but the negotiations broke down and the war continued.
Political Result:
Eventually, by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 30, 1864, the King of Denmark ceded the rights in the whole of Schleswig Holstein to the Sovereigns of Austria and Prussia jointly.
Remarks:
This was more a diplomatic war than a military war. The conflict was between retention and annexation, and little regard was paid on any side to the desires of the inhabitants of the disputed territory. Although by the _Treaty of London_ of 1852 the Powers, including Great Britain, had acknowledged as permanent the principle of the integrity of the Danish Monarchy no steps were taken by them to maintain that principle. The settlement did nothing to prevent the outbreak of war between Prussia and Austria two years later, when Schleswig Holstein was again one of the bones of contention.
THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR
1866
Belligerents:
Prussia and some of the smaller North German States and Italy. Austria and the other German States.
Cause:
From 1848 onwards in all the projects for a united Germany there was keen rivalry between Prussia and Austria. Each resisted the domination of the other in any new Empire, and the South German states were inclined to side with Austria against Prussian supremacy. This state of affairs prevented any final scheme from being agreed to. At the same time there were serious differences between Austria and Italy, who was Prussia’s ally. Bismarck made up his mind that Austria must be expelled by force of arms from the German Federation. He was an ardent supporter of the House of Hohenzollern.
Occasion:
Austria supported Schleswig Holstein in their struggle for independence against Prussia after the conclusion of the Danish War. An attempted congress of neutrals failed. Austria called on the Diet of Frankfort to take the affairs of Schleswig Holstein into its own hands, and demanded and obtained the mobilization of the whole Federal armies. Prussia declared that this action made an end of the Federal Union, and submitted a new plan for the organization of Germany, which was refused. Diplomatic relations were broken off June 12, 1866.
Course of the War:
Hanover and Hesse Cassel were conquered by Prussia, the Austrians were defeated at Königgrätz, July 3, 1866, and the Prussians pushed forward in sight of Vienna. The Austrians defeated the Italians on land at Custozza, and by sea at Lissa.
Political Result:
Napoleon III offered mediation, which was accepted. The _Treaty of Prague_, August 23, 1866. Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Hesse Cassel, and Frankfort: Germany north of the Main together with Saxony was included in a Federation under Prussia: the Southern states were left independent. Prussian sovereignty over Schleswig Holstein was recognized. Austria withdrew completely from German affairs.
Remarks:
Napoleon III had attempted, by dividing Germany in two, to put an obstacle in the way of German unity. His clumsy diplomacy was greatly disapproved of in France. By preventing a final settlement he made the recurrence of war inevitable.
BRITISH EXPEDITION IN ABYSSINIA
1867–1868
Belligerents:
Great Britain. Abyssinia.
Cause:
From 1855 Abyssinia came under the powerful rule of the Emperor Theodore. He subdued the neighbouring kingdoms of Tigré and Shoa, and took Menelek, son of the ruler of Tigré, to be trained in his service. He ravaged the surrounding country, and oppressed his own people. In 1864 there was an interchange of letters between Theodore and the British Government, out of which difficulties arose.
Occasion:
The British Consul and his staff, and subsequently a British emissary, were imprisoned in Magdala and put in chains. Their release was demanded, but the Emperor paid no attention, and the British Government decided they must have recourse to arms.
Course of the War:
A British force under Sir Robert Napier landed in January 1868, a march of three hundred miles was undertaken through the mountainous districts, and, after a fierce engagement, Magdala was stormed and taken on April 13, 1868. The Emperor committed suicide, and his son was taken to England, where he died. The British troops left the country in May 1868.
Political Result:
The ruler of Tigré succeeded Theodore under the title of King John, and on his death, in 1889, Menelek became Emperor.
Remarks:
After this the Italians came on to the scene with ambitions in this part of Africa (see p. 74), but Abyssinia remained an independent kingdom. In the various expeditions against the Mullah in Somaliland (1902–4) the Abyssinians co-operated with Great Britain.
THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
1870–1871
Belligerents:
France. Prussia and ten other German States.
Cause:
For some years previously there had been increasing friction between France and Prussia, owing chiefly to Louis Napoleon’s apprehensions as to the possibility of closer union between Prussia and the South German states, his repeated endeavours to extend the Eastern frontier of France, and Bismarck’s counter-moves to frustrate his designs. The desire also for a united Germany was growing stronger, and Bismarck believed it could not be completed without a conflict with France.
Occasion:
The candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the throne of Spain in 1870 was resented by France as calculated to bring Spain under the influence of Prussia. King William of Prussia, on representations from France, persuaded Prince Leopold to withdraw, but refused firmly but politely a guarantee against the renewal of the candidature. Bismarck published a telegram conveying the impression that the French Ambassador, Benedetti, had been insulted by the King at Ems on the occasion of the refusal. This infuriated public opinion in France, the Empress Eugénie actively used her influence, and Napoleon agreed to a declaration of war on July 14, 1870.
Course of the War:
In the war, which lasted from July 1870 to February 1871, the ill-organized and badly led French troops could make no stand against the well-prepared armies of Germany. The French were defeated at Wörth, August 6th; Metz, August 7th; Marsla Tour, August 17th; Gravelotte, August 18th. Paris was besieged: Louis Napoleon capitulated at Sedan, September 2nd; Strasburg fell, September 28th; Bazaine capitulated at Metz, October 27th; and the Germans entered Paris on January 28, 1871.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Frankfort_, May 10, 1871, Alsace and half Lorraine (with Metz) were ceded to Germany, and an indemnity of 200 millions was exacted from France. The King of Prussia was proclaimed at Versailles German Emperor. France was declared a republic, and Napoleon eventually retired into exile in England.
Remarks:
The dictation of terms and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine entirely prevented friendly relations from being established between the two countries in the succeeding years. France, by getting rid of the corrupt and incompetent government of Napoleon III, began to recuperate from this time onward. Germany, having reached the ideal of unity, proceeded gradually to join in the competition for commercial expansion and Imperial aggrandizement.
THE ASHANTI WAR
1873–1874
Belligerents:
Great Britain. The Ashantis.
Cause:
The Ashantis, a very fierce and warlike tribe on the Gold Coast of Africa had repeatedly caused trouble owing to their treatment of the Fantis, a tribe on the coast under British protection. In 1824 they defeated a British force and carried off to Kumasi the skull of the Governor, Sir Charles M’Carthy, which was used as a royal drinking cup. They were afterwards defeated in 1826. In 1863 an expedition against them had to be abandoned owing to the ravages done by sickness among the troops. In 1867 a warlike king, Kofi Karikari succeeded as ruler and proceeded to make hostile preparations against the Fantis.
Occasion:
In 1872 some Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast were transferred to Great Britain. The King of Ashanti claimed a tribute formerly allowed to him by the Dutch and refused to evacuate the territory ceded to Britain. He also held four Europeans in captivity. The British Government determined to take up the matter seriously, and when in January 1873 an Ashanti force invaded the British Protectorate an expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley was immediately despatched.
Course of the War:
Owing to difficulties of climate it was necessary that the whole campaign should be rapidly carried out. The Ashantis were defeated at all points. Kumasi was reached and King Kofi surrendered. The European troops suffered severely from fever but the objects were successfully accomplished. Wolseley sailed from England on September 12, 1873, and returned to Portsmouth on March 21, 1874.
Political Result:
The King renounced his claim to supremacy over any part of the former Dutch protectorate, paid an indemnity in gold, and agreed to prohibit human sacrifices. Further trouble arose, however, after the death of the King, his successors disregarding the treaty. In 1895 an expedition was sent out under Colonel Sir F. Scott. Kumasi was occupied and King Prempeh deported. Still the Ashanti tribes refused to submit, and continued in rebellion. The Governor of the Gold Coast and a small force were surrounded in Kumasi. He managed to escape and Kumasi was finally relieved by an expedition under Colonel Wilcocks who gradually suppressed the rebellion. By an Order in Council of September 26, 1901, Ashanti was formally annexed to the British dominions and given a separate administration under the control of the Governor of the Gold Coast.
Remarks:
Imperial responsibilities entail the protection of friendly tribes against hostile attack in the outlying parts of the Empire. Punitive expeditions become necessary and annexation is found to be the best method of securing law and order.
RUSSO-TURKISH WAR
1877–1878
Belligerents:
Russia. Turkey.
Cause:
The persecution and oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire led to a revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. Andrassy, on behalf of Austria, presented a Note to the Turkish Government demanding reforms, and this was followed by the Berlin Memorandum, signed by Germany, France, Austria, Russia, and Italy. Great Britain alone stood out. The Bulgarian massacres in June 1876 caused a great sensation in England, and were followed by a declaration of war by Servia and Montenegro against Turkey. Great Britain, always mistrusting Russian designs, called a Conference. The demands of the Conference were rejected by Turkey in January 1877. The Sultan protested against the encroachment of the Powers on his inviolable rights.
Occasion:
The London Protocol of March 1877, signed by Great Britain and Russia and agreed to by the other Powers, called for reforms and expressed the intention of the Powers to safeguard the Christian population. This was also rejected by the Turks, and Russia declared war on April 24, 1877.
Course of the War:
The Russian army crossed the Danube. Plevna fell in December 1877. The Russians entered Adrianople, January 1878. The advance of the Russian army towards Gallipoli was followed by the dispatch of the British fleet to Constantinople and brought Russia and Great Britain within a hair’s-breadth of war. This, however, was avoided and peace negotiations began.
Political Result:
_Treaty of San Stefano_, March 3, 1878. The independence of Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania was recognized. Bulgaria was made an autonomous principality with frontiers including the greater part of European Turkey; the Dobrudja and certain districts in Asia Minor were ceded to Russia.
Great Britain objected strongly to this treaty, and proposed a Congress at Berlin. While the chances of the Congress hung in the balance, Great Britain made warlike preparations, but the Congress was finally agreed to.
_Treaty of Berlin_, July 13, 1878. Bulgaria’s frontier was confined to the country north of the Balkans. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to Austria: the territory given to Serbia and Montenegro was further restricted: Thessaly and part of Epirus were ceded to Greece.
By a secret convention Great Britain engaged to protect Turkey against further aggression of Russia in Asia. In return the Porte assigned Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England.
Lord Beaconsfield was the British Plenipotentiary at the Peace Congress and returned declaring he had secured “peace with honour.”
Remarks:
This was a patched-up peace. It settled none of the problems in the Balkans, which continued to be the danger zone in Europe for the rest of the century.
THE SECOND AFGHAN WAR
1878–1881
Belligerents:
Great Britain and Indian Troops. Afghanistan.
Cause: