Part 2
Russia’s hold over Turkey was greatly strengthened, but the establishment of an absolutely independent kingdom in Greece was finally secured.
WAR BETWEEN HOLLAND AND BELGIUM
1830–1839
Belligerents:
Holland. Belgium, France, Great Britain.
Cause:
The Kingdom of the Netherlands was set up by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, but from the first there was discord between the two states of the kingdom. King William was a Dutchman and a Protestant. Holland, although the smaller of the two states, had a permanent majority in the Chamber. Public offices and appointments were filled by Dutchmen. The hatred of Dutch rule grew, and with it a desire for separation.
Occasion:
The success of the French Revolution of 1830 led to an outbreak in Brussels, and Belgian insurgents fought against the Dutch soldiers. The Powers met in London, and Belgium was declared a separate kingdom. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was offered the crown and entered Brussels as King of the Belgians on June 21, 1831; at the same time the Dutch prepared for an invasion.
Course of the War:
On August 9, 1831, the Belgians were routed in an encounter with the Dutch, but on the intervention of the French army King William withdrew. The Conference in London drew up a treaty, but King William refused to come to terms and retained possession of Antwerp. In November a combined British and French fleet sailed for the coast of Holland, and a French army laid siege to Antwerp. The Dutch garrison capitulated on December 23, 1831, and the town was handed over to the Belgians and the French troops withdrew. Still the Dutch refused to yield and held two forts which enabled them to command the navigation of the Scheldt. Not till March 1838 did Holland signify her readiness to accept the treaty.
Political Result:
The Conference throughout had endeavoured to come to an agreement; Austria, Prussia, and Russia sympathized with Holland; but eventually the final _Treaty of London_ was signed on April 19, 1839. Luxemburg was divided, and also the district of Maestricht. The Scheldt was declared open to the commerce of both countries. The national debt was divided, and the five Powers guaranteed the independence and neutrality of Belgium.
Remarks:
As independent states the two countries lived side by side amicably. The neutrality of Belgium was reaffirmed in 1870 on the outbreak of the Franco-German War.
Leopold was succeeded in 1865 by his son Leopold II, under whose sovereignty the Congo Free State was placed in 1885. King Albert succeeded his uncle in 1909.
WAR IN PORTUGAL AND SPAIN
1830–1839
Belligerents:
Followers of Don Miguel. Portuguese Constitutionalists. Spaniards. Carlists. and for a period France and Great Britain.
Cause:
Don Miguel, the head of the reactionary party, was betrothed to Donna Maria, daughter of Pedro of Brazil. In 1828, disregarding his professions of loyalty to the Constitution, he declared himself King of Portugal. The Constitutionalists, who were adherents of Donna Maria, were crushed. She received no assistance from outside to deal with the usurper.
In Spain Don Carlos, the King’s brother, was the representative of the reactionary party. King Ferdinand, before his death, issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which enabled his daughter to succeed to the throne. The King was weak and unpopular, and Don Carlos had a great following in Spain.
Occasion:
In 1830 Great Britain and France demanded satisfaction for the attacks on their subjects in Lisbon, and their squadrons appeared in the Tagus. Great Britain obtained an indemnity and an apology: the French admiral carried off the best ships of Don Miguel’s navy. In 1831 Pedro came over from Brazil and raised troops for the reconquest of Portugal, which began in the following year. Don Carlos was making common cause with Don Miguel when the King of Spain died in 1833, and his child Isabella was declared Queen, with Christina, his wife, as Regent. Rebellion broke out, and Don Carlos was proclaimed King in several provinces.
Course of the War:
Don Pedro captured Oporto, but was besieged there for nearly a year. With assistance from outside he overcame the resistance of the enemy and entered Lisbon in July, 1833. A quadruple treaty was signed at London in April 1834, by which Spain and Portugal, assisted by Great Britain and France, engaged to drive both Miguel and Carlos from the Peninsula. A Spanish army marched against Miguel and the British fleet arrived. Miguel renounced the crown, and quitted the Peninsula. Don Carlos was conducted to London, but he escaped and appeared again in Spain at the head of his insurgents in July 1834. He gained several victories, and prepared to march on Madrid. Christina appealed to France for assistance, but Louis Philippe was reluctant to embark on the enterprise and refused. The war continued till at last General Espatero forced back the insurgents, the Carlists turned their arms against one another, and Don Carlos surrendered and crossed the French frontier.
Political Result:
Absolutism was crushed and a more constitutional form of government was established. But the throne of Spain was the subject of further disputes in the future.
Remarks:
This prolonged and barbaric conflict disgraced the Spanish nation. The three Eastern Powers favoured the cause of Don Carlos and reaction. It was the fear of possibly provoking a general war that made France refuse to intervene.
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN IN POLAND
1831
Belligerents:
Russia. Poland.
Cause:
By the three partitions of 1772, 1793, and 1795 Poland ceased to exist as an independent state, and Polish territory was divided up between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. But in 1814 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was established as a separate kingdom subject to the Czar of Russia. The economic and political life was revived and with it antagonism to Russia. In 1828 plans were made for an outbreak, but the opportunity was neglected. The French Revolution of 1830 rekindled the flames.
Occasion:
A revolt broke out in November 1830. An attempt was made to negotiate with the Czar Nicholas, who let it be understood that Poland had but two alternatives, unconditional submission or annihilation. The Polish Government, in January 1831, replied by proclaiming his dethronement. War was unavoidable, and Russian troops crossed the Polish frontier in February.
Course of the War:
The losses sustained by the Russian armies were considerable, but the Poles had to fall back on Warsaw and were defeated at Ostrolenka. Russian reinforcements came up, and on September 8, 1831, the Russian army made its entrance into Warsaw, and the revolt was suppressed.
Political Result:
The Constitution of Poland was abolished: it ceased to be a separate kingdom and became a province of the Russian Empire. The Polish leaders were exiled.
Remarks:
The Poles might have won a gradual development of constitutional liberty without a break with the powerful sovereignty of the Czar; the revolt no doubt was rash and unwise. But, on the other hand, the governments of Western Europe, including Great Britain, who, by the Treaty of Vienna, guaranteed the autonomy of Poland, never lifted a hand on behalf of Polish independence, and acquiesced in its complete absorption by Russia.
THE TURKO-EGYPTIAN WAR
1832–1841
Belligerents:
Turkey and later Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Great Britain. Egypt.
Cause:
The ambition for extension of power on the part of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt.
Occasion:
Unsatisfied with the Island of Crete given to him for his services to the Ottoman Empire, Mehemet Ali sent his son Ibrahim with a force and laid siege to Acre. He was declared a rebel, and the Turkish army entered Syria.
Course of the War:
Syria and Asia Minor were conquered by Ibrahim. Russia offered aid, but on the intervention of France the Sultan was persuaded to make peace, making over to Mehemet Ali Syria and the province of Adena. At the same time, in July 1833, a treaty of defensive alliance was signed at _Unkiar Skelessi_ between Russia and Turkey, by which Russia obtained very nearly complete ascendancy at Constantinople. Great Britain desired to maintain the Sultan’s power: France befriended Mehemet Ali: both were agreed in checking Russian influence in the Levant. War broke out again. Ibrahim gained a victory at Nissibim in June 1839, and the Turkish fleet surrendered to Mehemet Ali at Alexandria. A quadruple treaty was signed by Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, by which it was proposed that Mehemet should have the hereditary government of Egypt, should withdraw from Syria and hold Palestine as a governor under the Porte. The exclusion of France from this agreement roused great public indignation. By the aid of the Allies Mehemet Ali was driven from Syria. Acre was captured by Sir Charles Napier, and Mehemet submitted.
Political Result:
By the final settlement, to which France also agreed, Mehemet Ali abandoned all claim to provinces outside Egypt, undertook to restore the Turkish fleet, and was assured the hereditary possession of Egypt. The Straits were closed to the warships of all nations. This prevented Russia from becoming a Mediterranean Power.
Remarks:
Turkey now became dependent on the protection of Europe. Hopes of internal reform, however, never fructified. The conflicting ambitions of European Powers with regard to the continually shrinking dominions of the Sultan became henceforth an increasing source of friction.
FIRST AFGHAN WAR
1838–1842
Belligerents:
Great Britain and Indian Troops. Afghanistan.
Cause:
The close proximity of Afghanistan to India necessitated the British Government watching jealously the affairs of that country, and preparing for the possibility of its being brought under the domination of any other Power. Russian intrigues had been throughout a source of suspicion and uneasiness. The British policy was declared to be the maintenance of the integrity and independence of Afghanistan.
Occasion:
The British Government decided to reinstate Shah Shuja, who was a refugee in British territory, Dost Mahommed being in power at Kabul.
Course of the War:
A British Indian force advanced in March 1838, and entered Kandahar. Shah Shuja was crowned. Dost Mahommed withdrew, and Kabul was entered. The war was brought to an end, but in November 1841 a revolt broke out in Kabul and there were serious massacres. The British garrison in withdrawing was overwhelmed between Kabul and Jalalabad. Reinforcements, in 1842, forced the Kyber Pass, relieved Jalalabad and occupied Kabul. The army finally evacuated Afghanistan in December 1842.
Political Result:
A ruler imposed on a free people by foreign arms is always unpopular. The Afghans considered that Shah Shuja’s rule under the protection of British troops might be fatal to their national independence.
Remarks:
This war has been described as a rash, ill-planned, and hazardous enterprise, and was the immediate cause of further trouble. (See p. 58.)
THE OPIUM WAR IN CHINA
1840–1842
Belligerents:
Great Britain. China.
Cause:
The Chinese still held the doctrine that no political relations or dealings should be held with any foreign country. The British Government under Palmerston decided to place trade relations with China on a more satisfactory basis, confusion and annoyance having arisen owing to the expiry of the East India Company’s charter. They also resolved to protect the opium traffic in spite of the protests of the Chinese Government. This latter reason overshadowed the others, and the war, which was known as the Opium War, was the subject of heated controversy in England.
Occasion:
The Chinese Government refused to recognize the British Commission or to come to terms on the opium question. Reports in 1839 from Captain Elliot, the British Trade Commissioner, led to the decision of the British Government to send an expedition, and war was declared in 1840.
Course of the War:
The fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year Amoy. Ningpo fell, and in 1842 Chapu, Woosung, and Shanghai shared the same fate. Before Nanking could be captured the Chinese Government proposed terms of peace.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Nanking_, August 21, 1842, Hong-kong was formally ceded to the British Crown; Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai were declared open to foreign trade. A war indemnity of twelve million dollars was paid to Great Britain, and subsequent treaties were signed for the regulation of trade.
Remarks:
This was the beginning of the exploitation of China by the Western Powers. It led to further wars, and the opium question continued to agitate public opinion in Great Britain and cause disputes with China for the rest of the century, until the opium trade was finally abolished in 1913.
AMERICAN WAR WITH MEXICO
1846–1848
Belligerents:
The United States of America. Mexico.
Cause:
Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836. The independence of Texas was recognized by the United States, but the proposal that the new state should be admitted into the Union was declined. A strong support for the annexation of Texas in the interests of slavery grew up, more especially in the Southern states, and in December 1844 resolutions were passed in both Houses, and it was formally enrolled as a new state.
Occasion:
The Mexican Government still claimed Texas as a province, and its annexation by the United States was considered an act of hostility. The Americans had suffered long under continued acts of insult and spoliation on the part of the Mexicans, and were therefore prepared to fight.
Course of the War:
The Americans under Taylor invaded Mexico, won battles at Palo Alto and Resaca and captured Monterey. In 1847 there were more victories, the Mexicans under Santa Anna being everywhere defeated. The Americans entered Mexico City on September 14th. After further fighting peace was proclaimed at Washington in July 1848.
Political Result:
By the _Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo_, February 2, 1848, Mexico ceded the whole of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California. The United States surrendered their other conquests.
Remarks:
So far as Texas was concerned, the political opinion in the United States was divided, and that division was to become more serious as time went on. On the other hand, Mexico was a troublesome neighbour, and has continued ever since to be the cause of disturbance and dispute.
AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN WAR
1848–1849
Belligerents:
Hungary. Austria, the Southern Slavs and Russia.
Cause:
The fall of Metternich, who had been the champion of despotism and reaction throughout Europe, and the revolutionary spirit which ran through Europe in 1848, created great unrest in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Emperor Ferdinand was weak and worthless, and the Magyars were determined not to submit to the domination of autocratic rule in Austria. Jellacic, the Croatian leader, hoped to create a Southern Slav state: he co-operated with the Austrians in opposition to Hungary, and was supported by the Czechs of Bohemia.
Occasion:
Finding it impossible to come to terms with the Emperor Ferdinand, Kossuth, the Hungarian leader, took up an uncompromisingly hostile attitude. Jellacic marched to Pesth. A revolutionary movement of sympathy with Hungary broke out in Vienna. The Emperor fled to Olmutz. Windischgrätz, the Austrian general, marched on Vienna and took possession in November 1848. Ferdinand abdicated, and Francis Joseph, his nephew, became Emperor December 2nd. The Hungarians refused to acknowledge him. There was a rising of Roumanians in Transylvania, and the whole Hungarian nation was called to arms.
Course of the War:
The Austrians occupied Pesth on January 5, 1849; the Hungarians withdrew to Debreczin and were defeated at Kapolona on February 26th. In April the Magyar troops recovered and the Austrians were driven out of Hungary. On April 19th Hungary was proclaimed an independent state. Russia intervened to assist Austria, and marched an army across Galicia. The Hungarians were now confronted with a force three times the size of their own, and the main army capitulated at Vilagos on August 13, 1849.
Political Result:
Hungary was completely crushed and subjected to savage punishment by its conquerors. Every vestige of its old constitutional rights was extinguished.
Remarks:
In 1860 the old Constitution was restored. In 1867 the Emperor Francis Joseph was crowned King of Hungary. A responsible ministry was appointed, and a financial agreement (Ausgleich) made between Austria and Hungary.
Nationality asserted itself in spite of all attempts at repression. But the Hungarians, in their turn, held the Slav and Roumanian populations within their borders with an iron grasp and failed to gain their affection.
THE ITALIAN WAR OF LIBERATION
1831, 1848–1849, 1859 and 1866–1867
Belligerents:
The States of Italy. Austria. France.
Cause:
Italy, after the fall of Napoleon, was divided into separate ill-governed small states, with Venice and Lombardy in the hands of Austria. The idea of uniting Italy under one Government grew as the century advanced, and received fresh impetus from the revolutionary movements in Europe in 1830 and 1848. The society, “Young Italy,” under the guidance of Mazzini, kept the spirit of revolution alive, although several insurrections instigated by them failed. The expulsion of Austria became the central idea of the movement.
Occasion:
The quarrels between the smaller states: the hatred of the presence of Austria, who, under Metternich’s guidance, desired throughout to suppress the movement: the decline of Austrian power on the rise of Prussia: the intervention of France to prevent Austrian aggrandizement and to protect the Pope.
Course of the Wars:
The revolt in the Papal States in 1831 was suppressed by Austrian intervention. France also intervened, and the Austrian troops withdrew. In 1848 Sardinian troops advanced against Austria, but after much fighting round Verona were defeated at Santa Lucia.
Civil war broke out between Naples and Sicily. Sardinia and Piedmont, under Victor Emmanuel and his Minister, Cavour, now took the lead. France became their ally in 1859. In spite of attempts at mediation by Great Britain, Austria presented an ultimatum, April 23, 1859. Napoleon III and the Allies won victories at Magenta and Solferino. By the _Peace of Villa Franca_ in July, followed by the _Treaty of Zurich_, November 10, 1859, Austria ceded Lombardy but not Venice. Tuscany, Parma Modena, and Romagna were united to Piedmont by their own vote. Savoy and Nice were ceded to France.
In 1860 Garibaldi conquered Sicily and Naples. Piedmontese troops entered the Papal States. By 1861 all Italy, with the exception of Rome and Venice, was under Victor Emmanuel. In the North war broke out again. The Italians were defeated by Austria at Custozza, but after Königgrätz (see p. 50) the Austrians ceded Venice to France, and Napoleon III handed it over to Italy. This arrangement was confirmed by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 3, 1866, between Austria and Italy. In 1867 France defended the Papal States against Garibaldi’s invasion, and he was defeated at Mentana. Finally, in 1870, Napoleon III withdrew his troops from Papal territory, and on September 20th Victor Emmanuel entered Rome.
Political Result:
All Italy became united under one monarch with its capital at Rome. Victor Emmanuel was succeeded in 1878 by Humbert, the father of King Victor Emmanuel III.
Remarks:
The rivalry between Austria and Italy did not die down, and there were still certain territories--_Italia irredenta_ (such as Trentino)--which remained in Austrian hands.
THE CRIMEAN WAR
1854–1856
Belligerents:
Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia. Russia.
Cause:
From 1830 onwards there was a growing estrangement between Great Britain and Russia. The Czar Nicholas believed that the dominion of the Turk in Europe was nearing its end, and cherished the ambition that Russia should acquire provinces of the Ottoman dominions. On the other hand, there was keen opposition in Great Britain to Russia’s expansion, and to the idea of Constantinople falling into her hands. Louis Napoleon had only two years previously become Emperor of the French. His dynastic ambitions made him eager for military glory. Sardinia joined the Allies for tactical reasons.
Occasion:
The French claimed the custody of the Holy Places in Palestine: the Russians made a counter-claim to the custody of the Holy Places and to a Protectorate over the Greek Christians in the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish Government, on the advice of the British Ambassador, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, refused to accept the Russian claims. Russian troops crossed the Pruth in June 1853, and a Turkish squadron was destroyed at Sinope in November. On the refusal of Russia to make her ships re-enter port in the Black Sea and evacuate the Danubian principalities, war was declared by France and England on March 27, 1854.
Course of the War:
The Crimea was invaded, and fighting continued there for two years. The Austrian attempt at mediation in May 1855, failed. The Russians were defeated at Alma and Inkerman, and Sevastopol, after a long siege, fell on September 9, 1855. The Russians captured Kars in November.
Political Results:
By the _Treaty of Paris_, March 30, 1856, the Black Sea was neutralized. An engagement was made by all the Powers to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire: the Sultan promised to give equality of treatment to his Christian subjects. The Danubian provinces were granted independence under the sovereignty of the Sultan.
Remarks:
This treaty was absolutely barren. The Sultan’s promise was never acted on: the neutrality of the Black Sea was maintained only till 1870: and when the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was assailed in later years none of the signatory Powers intervened in its defence. But at the Congress of Berlin in 1878 the Powers partitioned parts of the Ottoman Empire. So far from settling any disputes this war caused dissensions which led to other wars.
THE INDIAN MUTINY
1857–1858
Belligerents:
Great Britain. Native Indians.
Cause:
The East India Company had engaged in constant wars and employed an army in which native troops outnumbered the British by eight to one. The Sepoys especially became aware of their strength and importance. In many ways religious sensibilities were offended, dissatisfaction with the Company’s rule spread and unrest was abroad.
Occasion:
The spirit of revolt grew, and a trivial incident was sufficient to make the spark burst into a flame. Cartridges used for the new Enfield rifle smeared with the fat of sacred cows and the lard of polluted pigs were to be bitten by Hindu and Mohammedan alike. The ferment caused by the rumour spread and the mutiny broke out.
Course of the War:
Native troops mutinied at Mirat, and proceeded to Delhi, Cawnpore, and Lucknow. Many British men and women were murdered. A British force in June and July 1857 marched on Delhi. Engagements were fought, in which there were heavy losses. Disease and cholera also carried off many victims. After a great struggle Lahore was captured in September, and Agra was relieved, also Cawnpore, where, under Nana Sahib, the most hideous massacres and cruelty had taken place. At Lucknow a heroic resistance was made against an overwhelming force of rebels. It was relieved on November 22, 1857. In March 1858, the whole province of Oudh was recovered by Outram and Colin Campbell. Not till the beginning of 1859 did organized resistance come to an end in all parts of India.
Political Result: