Chapter 5

The following menu may be prepared for your first tea: Tea with Lemon (or Cream) and Sugar Toasted Wafers with Cheese or Oatmeal Cookies Coconut Sweetmeats

From previous work, estimate the quantity of tea, lemons (or cream), sugar, wafers, or cakes you will need. A recipe for Coconut Sweetmeats follows. It makes 20 sweetmeats about one inch in diameter.

COCONUT SWEETMEATS

1/4 cupful powdered sugar l 1/4 cupfuls shredded coconut 2 tablespoonfuls flour 1/8 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 egg white

Mix the dry ingredients, then add the vanilla. Beat the egg white stiff. Add the other ingredients and mix thoroughly.

Grease a baking sheet and dredge it with flour. Drop the coconut mixture by the teaspoonfuls on the baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) for 20 minutes or until slightly browned. Remove from the pan, place on a cake cooler. When cold store in a tin box.

SERVING THE TEA.--For an afternoon tea, the beverage may be poured in the kitchen and carried into the dining room or the other room where the guests are assembled, or it may be poured in the dining room in the presence of the guests.

When the latter plan is followed, the teapot, cups, plates, spoons, and napkins are placed on the dining table. Seated at the table, one of the pupils [Footnote 17: If afternoon tea is served in a home to a number of guests, an intimate friend of the hostess or a member of the household usually pours tea. In this way the hostess is free to greet every guest and to see that every one is having an enjoyable time.] pours the tea, and places a filled cup and a teaspoon on a plate. The tea (with a napkin) is then passed to the guests; the lemon or cream and sugar, wafers or cakes and sweets are also passed. The slices of lemon should be placed on a small plate or other suitable dish and served with a lemon fork. Wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes should be placed on plates or in dainty baskets. No article of silver is provided in serving them; the guests take them from the plates with their fingers.

Those who are serving the tea should be watchful and note when the guests have drunk their tea and relieve them of cup and plate. They should also replenish the teapot, and see that the one pouring the tea has all the materials and dishes needed.

DIVISION THREE

BODY-BUILDING AND BODY-REGULATING FOODS, RICH IN ASH (MINERAL MATTER)

LESSON XI

FRESH VEGETABLES (A)

ASH.--In a previous lesson, it was mentioned that most foods do not consist of one material, but of several substances. _Ash_ or mineral matter is a common constituent of food. It is a _foodstuff_. The term "ash" does not apply to one substance; it is used to indicate a group of substances. Milk, eggs, vegetables, both fresh and dried fruits, and cereals are valuable sources of ash. They do not all, however, contain the same kind of ash.

The presence of ash in food is not apparent until the food is burned. The substance that remains after burning, _i.e._ the "ashes," is mineral matter or ash.

Although ash exists in combination with other substances in most foods, a few materials consist almost entirely of ash. Common salt is a mineral substance; another example is the white scaly substance which sometimes forms on the inside of a teakettle or on any pan in which water has been heated. Soda is still another familiar mineral substance. The condiment salt--ordinary table salt--(see _Condiments_) must not be confused with the term "salts"; the latter applies to many mineral substances besides common salt.

USE OF ASH IN THE BODY.--Ash as well as water does not burn in the body. It is therefore considered an incombustible foodstuff. Bones, teeth, and many other parts of the body contain certain mineral materials. Ash helps to build the body.

Ash exists in the fluids of the body. For example, there is salt in perspiration and in all excretions of the body. The digestive juices also contain mineral materials, and ash aids in the digestive processes of the body. Scientists have shown that ash participates in many ways in the regulation of body processes.

Thus ash has two main uses in the body: (_a_) _it aids in building the body_; and (_b_) _it aids in regulating body processes_. Ash, therefore, is an absolute necessity in diet.

FRESH VEGETABLES.--It was mentioned above that fresh vegetables are one of the most valuable food sources of ash. The leaves, stems, pods, and roots of certain plants, and also those fruits which are used as vegetables, may be classed as fresh vegetables. Some of these are: cabbage, brussels sprouts, lettuce, water cress, spinach, celery, onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, beets, carrots, and turnips.

Fresh vegetables contain not only the foodstuff ash, but water. Indeed most fresh vegetables contain from 75 to 90 per cent of water.

In addition to these two foodstuffs, vegetables contain _cellulose_. The latter is a fibrous substance which forms for the most part the skins and interior framework of vegetables and fruits. The strings of beans and celery and the "pith" of turnips and radishes, for example, contain much cellulose.

Foods containing both ash and cellulose have a laxative effect. Hence the value of fresh vegetables in diet. The use of fresh vegetables cannot be too strongly urged. Certain vegetables, especially the green leaved vegetables, also contain substances which are necessary to make the body grow and keep it in good health (see Division Seven).

Most persons should use fresh vegetables more freely than they do.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.--If ash is such a valuable constituent of vegetables, the latter should be cooked so as to retain all the ash. Unfortunately vegetables are not always cooked in such a way that the minerals are saved. Just as salt dissolves readily in water, so many of the mineral materials found in green vegetables dissolve in the water in which vegetables are cooked. Hence if it is necessary to drain off water from vegetables after cooking, it is evident there may be much loss of nutriment.

Ash is also one of the substances which gives flavor to vegetables. Insipid flavors of certain vegetables may be due to improper cooking.

A most important point to consider in the cooking of vegetables is the saving of the minerals. This can be accomplished in several ways:

1. Cooking in water with their skins.

2. Cooking in water and using the water which must be drained away after cooking for sauces and soups.

3. Cooking in such a small quantity of water that none needs to be drained away after cooking.

4. Cooking in steam.

5. Cooking in the oven by means of dry heat.

COOKING VEGETABLES IN WATER.--Water in which vegetables are cooked should be salted. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt for each quart of water. The water should be _boiling_ when the vegetables are added and should be kept boiling _gently_ during the entire cooking. Rapidly boiling water wears off the edges of vegetables and breaks them.

The water in which vegetables are cooked is called _vegetable stock_. When vegetables are pared or scraped before cooking in water, the stock should be utilized in making vegetable sauces.

Test vegetables for sufficient cooking with a fork or knitting needle.

BEETS

Clean beets by scrubbing them with a small brush, using it carefully so as not to break the skin. Leave two or three inches of the stems on until the beets are cooked. Cook them whole in boiling salted water (see _Cooking Vegetables in Water_). Test only the largest beet for sufficient cooking. Use a knitting needle or wire skewer for testing. Drain and cover with cold water and rub off the skin with the hands. Cut the beets into slices, sprinkle generously with salt and pepper, and add a little butter. A small quantity of vinegar may be added, if desired. Serve hot.

Beets may also be served with a _sauce_. Prepare the sauce like White Sauce, using for the liquid three parts of water and one part of vinegar.

Beets may be _pickled_ by slicing them or by cutting into cubes and placing in plain or spiced vinegar. Serve cold.

SCALLOPED TOMATOES WITH ONIONS

2 cupfuls sliced onions 2 cupfuls tomatoes 1 tablespoonful fat Salt and pepper 1 cupful bread crumbs

Parboil the onions for 15 minutes; drain. [Footnote 18: When the water is drained from the onions, there is a loss of nutriment. In cooking onions, however, we usually consider it advisable to lose some food value for the sake of flavor. See "Nutriment versus Flavor".] Into a greased baking-dish put a layer of tomatoes, then one of onions, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Repeat until all the vegetables are added.

Mix the bread crumbs and fat as directed for Stuffed Tomatoes. Sprinkle these crumbs on top of the vegetables. Bake in a moderate oven (400 degrees F.) for 30 minutes or until the onions are tender. Serve hot.

BROILED TOMATOES

Wash and cut tomatoes in halves, crosswise; do not peel them. Place them (with cut surface up) in a "frying" pan (without fat). Cook on top of the range or in the oven at a low temperature for about 30 minutes, or until the tomatoes are soft, but not broken. Add a bit of butter to each half of tomato and season with salt and pepper. Serve at once.

QUESTIONS

Since sugar is manufactured from beets, the latter must contain considerable sugar. From this fact and the results of Experiment 11, explain why beets must not be pared or cut in pieces before cooking.

State another reason why beets should not be pared or cut into pieces before cooking. Also give the reason for leaving a portion of the stem on beets during cooking.

Explain why only one beet should be tested for sufficient cooking, and why it should be tested with a knitting needle or wire skewer rather than with a fork.

What is the price of beets per pound? How many beets in a pound?

Carefully explain how the nutriment is retained by cooking beets and tomatoes according to the recipes of this lesson.

What is the advantage and disadvantage in draining water from onions after parboiling them?

LESSON XII

FRESH VEGETABLES (B)

FOOD PREJUDICES.--Most persons have decided likes and dislikes for certain foods. These opinions very often have no reasonable foundation. One taste of a food poorly prepared or a disparaging remark heard in childhood may be the cause for a lifetime's aversion for a food.

There is no better way to overcome food prejudices than by learning to prepare foods well--to make them tasty and nutritious--and to appreciate their nutritive value. Food prejudices like most others may be overcome by a thorough knowledge of the subject.

Come to the school kitchen with an open mind. When you understand why certain foods are valuable in diet and are able to prepare them skilfully, you may learn to enjoy them. To discover that foods which you previously considered commonplace and uninteresting are tasty, is really a pleasing experience.

TIME FOR COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES IN WATER.--It is not possible to state just how long a vegetable will be required to cook in water. The time varies with the kind of vegetable, its size, and age. Usually the older a vegetable, the longer the time required for cooking. Young vegetables, especially green corn and tender cabbage, may be spoiled by too long cooking.

For novices, a time table may be helpful not only in determining when a food is sufficiently cooked but in deciding how long to allow for cooking a food before it is to be served. But do not depend entirely upon a time table. Judging by appearance and using the fork or knitting needle is the most reliable test.

TABLE

Asparagus 15-20 minutes Beets (young) 45-60 minutes Beets (old) 3-4 hours Cabbage 15-30 minutes Carrots 30-60 minutes Cauliflower 20-30 minutes Celery 20-45 minutes Green Corn 12-20 minutes Lima beans (fresh) 45-60 minutes Onions 30-45 minutes Parsnips 30-45 minutes Peas (fresh) 20-30 minutes Potatoes 25-30 minutes Spinach 15-30 minutes Squash (summer) 20-30 minutes String Beans 1-3 hours Sweet Potatoes 15-25 minutes Turnips 30-45 minutes

PARING VEGETABLES.--If the outside skin of a vegetable is removed, it should be pared as thin as possible. The covering of the carrot and new potato is so thin that it can be removed by scraping, thereby saving the valuable nutritive substances just beneath the skin.

Turnips are an exception to the rule, a thick layer of cellular material covers them. For this reason, a thick paring is cut from turnips. (Cut a turnip in two and note the thickness of its skin.)

MASHED TURNIPS

6 medium turnips Salt and pepper 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute

Scrub and pare the turnips. Cut each into cubes. Place in the top part of a steamer (see Figure 31) and cook until tender when tested with a fork or knitting needle.

Mash the turnips with a potato masher. Add butter or substitute and enough salt and pepper to season. Serve hot.

BUTTERED CARROTS

4 cupfuls carrots, cut into strips 2 tablespoonfuls butter or substitute 2 teaspoonfuls salt Dash pepper

Scrub and scrape carrots, cut them into strips. Put them in a saucepan and add water to a depth of 1 inch. When the carrots are tender and only a small amount of water remains, add the butter or substitute and seasonings. Continue to cook slowly until almost all of the remaining water has evaporated. Serve the vegetables and surrounding liquid hot.

Young string beans cut in halves lengthwise and parsnips cut in strips may be cooked in the same way.

(Adapted from a _United States Department of Agriculture_ recipe.)

QUESTIONS

Why should the outside skin of a vegetable be pared as thin as possible? What is the exception to this rule?

How should vegetable stock be utilized? Why?

Housekeepers usually add milk to potatoes when mashing them. Why is moisture not added to mashed turnips?

What, advantage is there in steaming turnips rather than cooking them in water?

Why are carrots cooked in a small quantity of water rather than a large amount?

What are the prices of turnips and carrots per pound? How many of each of these vegetables in a pound?

LESSON XIII

FRESH FRUITS

FRUIT, A NECESSITY.--An authority [Footnote 19: See "Feeding the Family" (p 240), by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.] on diet says that at least as much money should be spent for fruits as for meat, eggs, and fish. Fruit should no longer be considered a luxury but a necessity in diet.

Fruits as well as vegetables are effective in preventing constipation,-- the common disorder which may lead to serious disturbances. Most fruits, especially those containing considerable acid, such as lemons, oranges, and apples, are laxative. Prunes and figs are also valuable in constipation. Blackberries are unlike other fruits in this respect,--they are constipating.

A disease called scurvy is often due to a lack of fresh vegetables and fruits in diet. Orange juice is especially valuable in preventing scurvy. Fruits are valuable not only because they aid in preventing constipation and scurvy, but because they contain ash. Fruits are rich in mineral matter.

KINDS OF FRUITS.--In a broad sense fruits are seed vessels. This classification includes many foods that are ordinarily considered vegetables. So in this text seed vessels that are used as desserts are termed fruits. Rhubarb is not properly a fruit; it is a vegetable, but because it is used in the diet the same way as fruit, it is classed as such.

Fruits are sometimes classified as food fruits and flavor fruits. This distinction depends upon the quantity of sugar and water that fruits contain,--those containing much sugar, such as ripe bananas and dried fruits, being called food fruits and those containing much water and less sugar, such as oranges and strawberries, being termed flavor fruits. This classification may be somewhat misleading, however, for all fruits may be considered food fruits. Fruits containing much water are generally rich in ash and other valuable substances and hence have decided food value.

WHEN TO ADD THE SUGAR to cooked fruits--before or after cooking--is a practical problem for every housewife. Fruits contain acids, and most cooked fruits require the addition of sugar to make them palatable.

The flavor of fresh fruit is generally popular. In cooking fruit it is desirable to retain the fresh fruit flavor. Housekeepers have found that a less desirable flavor results--the fruit "loses" more of its "fresh flavor"--if the sugar is cooked with the fruit. Moreover, when sugar is cooked with fruit, a sirup is formed, which is more apt to scorch than a mixture of fruit and water. For these reasons, it is well to add sugar to fruit _after cooking_, unless it is desired to preserve the shape of the fruit or unless fruit is made into jelly. Fruit is cooked in a sirup if it is desired to preserve its shape.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COOKING FRUITS.--Fruits should be washed, cut into pieces, and then pared or peeled, unless they are to be strained after cooking. For some fruits it is not necessary to remove the skins before straining.

We have all seen the dark stain on a steel knife that has been used for paring fruit or certain vegetables. _This black substance is formed by the action of the acid of the fruit or vegetable on the metal._ It is disagreeable in taste and may produce harmful results. For this reason all fruits should be cooked in granite, earthenware, or glass utensils.

The characteristic odors from cooking fruits indicate loss of flavor. This can be prevented somewhat by cooking fruits at a _low_ (simmering) _temperature_ in a _covered_ utensil. The _casserole_ used on top of a range or in the oven is most desirable for cooking fruits. Slow cooking prevents some fruits from breaking into pieces.

FRUIT SAUCES

Cook fruit in enough water to keep from scorching. When the fruit is tender, remove it from the fire, stir or beat until smooth, or press through a colander or strainer. Add the sugar at once and stir until the sugar is dissolved. Use 1/8 to 1/4 cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked fruit.

If fruit is somewhat lacking in flavor, it is often improved by adding spices or other flavoring. Some apples are made more palatable by adding cinnamon, nutmeg, or lemon juice.

STEWED FRUITS

Make a sirup of sugar and water, using one cupful of water and 1/2 to 1 cupful of sugar. When the sirup is boiling, add the fruit and cook _gently_ until tender. If the sirup is not thick enough when the fruit is tender, remove the fruit from the sirup, cook the sirup until of proper consistency, and then pour over the fruit.

Very firm fruit, such as quinces and sweet apples, as well as some unripe fruits, should be cooked in clear water until tender and then sweetened.

COMPARISON OF FRUIT SAUCE AND STEWED FRUIT.--Use the same kind of fruit and the same quantity of sugar, and make a Fruit Sauce and a dish of Stewed Fruit. Compare the fruit cooked by the two methods as to flavor and appearance. Which is more like fresh fruit in flavor?

At what time during its preparation should sugar be added to cooked fruit? Explain your answer clearly. Give two exceptions to this rule. Should sugar be added to cooked fruit while the fruit is hot or after it is cool? Why? (See Experiments 10 and 11.)

What is gained by not paring or peeling fruit that is to be strained after cooking? When fruit is cooking, what indicates a loss of flavor? What two precautions can be taken to preserve the flavor of fruits? What means, other than cooking in sirup, can be employed to retain the shape of cooked fruit?

RHUBARB SAUCE

Cut rhubarb (without peeling) into one-inch pieces. Place these in the top of a _double boiler_. Cook in a double boiler until soft, stirring occasionally. When cooked, add 1/3 to 1/2 cupful of sugar for each cupful of cooked rhubarb.

The _casserole_ may be used for cooking rhubarb. Place the rhubarb in a casserole. Add one tablespoonful of water for each cupful of rhubarb. Cover and simmer on top of a range, or bake in a slow oven until soft. Add sugar as directed above.

QUESTIONS

How many pounds in one peck of apples? How many medium sized apples in a pound?

What is the price per pound of fresh peaches?

For what substances is fruit especially valuable in diet? Give suggestions for retaining these nutritious materials when cooking fruit. Make a list of fresh fruits, stating when each is in season.

NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--If desired, the lessons of Division Seventeen, _The Preservation of Food_, may follow this lesson. Also see the note at the end of Lesson VI.

RELATED WORK

LESSON XIV

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU [Footnote 20: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--The "menu" of a "meal" lesson is to be assigned during the lesson previous to the "meal" lesson, so that its preparation can be planned before class time. Since only review foods are assigned, no instruction other than criticism of the finished product is to be given during the lesson. By cooking the group of foods in individual quantity, it is possible for pupils to complete the "meal" lesson in a 90-minute class period. It is more desirable, however, to cook enough of each food to serve five or six persons, provided the laboratory period is sufficiently long and the foods can be utilized in the lunch room.]

Scalloped Corn Baked Apple Tea

Outside Preparation of Lesson.

(_a_) Examine the recipes for these foods given in the text.

(_b_) Determine the number of servings each recipe will make.

(_c_) Study the methods of preparation so that no written directions regarding the process of cooking will be needed in class.

(_d_) Note the kind of utensils to be used for each food.

(_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_.

Preparation of Lesson in Class.

(_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work independently.

(_b_) Cook a sufficient quantity of each food to serve one or more persons as the time permits.

(_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible.

(_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.

(_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary.

(_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.

(_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be ready for serving.

(_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and serving without a maid.

(_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of the failure and its remedy.

LESSON XV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal daily.

Cook fruit at least once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.

(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as possible.

DIVISION FOUR

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES

LESSON XVI

SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR

ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this machine gives it energy or the power to move.

The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood are examples of the latter kind.

At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel foods.

There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the first one to be considered.