Chapter 6

EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does the sugar separate from the water?

EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you have the water?

EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quantity of hot water used in Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar? Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar quickly, how would you prepare it?

THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see _Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is slightly more complex.

Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude that this food should be used in large quantities or in preference to other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quantities there is so much dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty. Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.

SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a number of different kinds of sugar. These may be classified into two groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or _glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or _cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar.

The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A discussion of these follows:

(_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar. Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.

_Brown sugar_ is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.

(_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.

(_c_) _Molasses and Sorghum_.--Molasses is a by-product of cane sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain lime, the use of molasses in place of sugar may be recommended for children.

One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for children. Molasses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar refining, however, molasses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It also differs in flavor.

Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of molasses or sorghum is too strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and molasses or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under various trade names may be purchased.

(_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral matter as is molasses.

(_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71 per cent.

PEANUT CANDY

2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_ 1 cupful granulated sugar _and_ 1 cupful corn sirup (dark) 3/4 cupful chopped peanuts 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup.

If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.

Add the chopped peanuts and salt to either kind of sirup, stirring them in as quickly as possible. Pour immediately into a hot, _unbuttered_ pan. When slightly cool divide into squares with a chopping knife.

_Puffed cereals_ or _shredded coconut_ may be used instead of peanuts. Commercial salted peanuts may be used also. When the latter are used, the salt in the recipe above should be omitted.

CARAMELIZED SUGAR.--It should be noted that when heat is applied to granulated sugar, the latter liquefies and becomes brown in color. This brown liquid is called _caramel_ The process of making it is called _caramelization_.

When sugar is caramelizing, it reaches a high temperature. The melting point of tin is near the temperature of caramelized sugar. The enamel of granite ware is apt to chip off if subjected to great changes of temperature. Iron is not affected by the highest cooking temperature, hence it is desirable to use an iron utensil for caramelizing sugar.

NOTE.--When cane or granulated sugar is caramelized, a small quantity of an injurious substance called _furfural_ is formed. (See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. IX (April, 1917), p. 167.) The more sugar is heated, the more of the injurious substance is produced. Also, cane sugar yields more furfural than glucose,--the kind of sugar that is present in corn sirup. When caramelized sugar is boiled with water, however, the furfural is expelled.

In making Peanut Candy, the caramelized sugar cannot be boiled with water, hence it is desirable to use a combination of granulated sugar and corn sirup and heat the mixture until it is only light brown in color.

EXPERIMENT 13: THE SOLUBILITY OF CARAMEL.--Immediately after removing the candy from the iron pan, pour hot water into the pan. Allow it to stand for several minutes, then examine. Is caramel soluble in water? Does it dissolve more or less readily than granulated sugar? What practical application can be drawn from this experiment with regard to washing a pan in which sugar has been caramelized?

QUESTIONS

Weigh one pound of granulated sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?

Weigh one pound of powdered sugar. How many cupfuls does it measure?

What is the price per pound of granulated and of powdered sugar?

What is the price of corn sirup per can? How much does a can measure?

Calculate the cost of peanut candy made entirely with granulated sugar and that made with granulated sugar and sirup.

Note the proportion of unshelled to shelled peanuts. How many unshelled peanuts are required for one cupful of shelled peanuts?

Why is an iron rather than a granite pan used for making peanut candy?

What is the advantage of heating the pan?

Why is it necessary to pour the mixture into the pan immediately after adding the peanuts?

Why is a mixture of granulated sugar and corn sirup used in the making of peanut candy rather than corn sirup? (See _Corn Sirup_.)

From your work in physiology, explain the relation of the digestion, absorption, and assimilation of foods.

LESSON XVII

SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (A)

DRIED FRUITS.--The wrinkled skins of dried fruits indicate that there has been a loss of some material. The water of fresh fruits evaporates as they are dried. Hence dried fruits contain very much less water than fresh fruits. But weight for weight they contain a greater quantity of sugar and ash.

Like all fruits, dried fruits are especially valuable for their ash. They are also valuable for their sugar. Three fourths of the weight of most dried fruit is sugar.

Dried fruits such as raisins, dates, figs, and prunes are valuable sweets for boys and girls. It is much better to eat one of these fruits than candy. This is because the sugar is mixed with other materials and as explained previously does not irritate the digestive organs as does the concentrated sugar existing in most candies. (See the _Digestion of Sugar_.) The fact that mineral materials exist along with sugar is another point in favor of the sweet fruits. All the above-mentioned fruits contain iron. Very young children are fed prune juice because of its laxative effect.

The unpopularity of prunes is unfortunate. This may be because prunes were formerly one of the cheapest fruits or because they are cooked and served in the same way too often. A pleasing variation may be made by combining them with other food materials. Many kinds of very tasty desserts containing prunes may be made. Many varieties of prunes may be cooked without the addition of any sugar. Desirable results can often be secured by combining prunes and other dried fruits with tart fruits such as apricots, apples, and rhubarb.

Raisins are a favorite food of mountain climbers and those tramping long distances. They serve as a satisfying diet on such trips because of their high sugar content (sugar has been mentioned previously as energy-giver). Since they are a dried fruit, a small quantity furnishes much food. This is an advantageous factor in carrying them.

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING DRIED FRUITS.--Wash the fruit carefully. Place it in the saucepan in which it is to be cooked and pour enough cold water over the fruit to cover it. Cover the saucepan and allow the fruit to soak for several hours or overnight. Then cook the fruit at simmering temperature in the water in which it was soaked. When the fruit is tender, remove the saucepan from the fire, add sugar if desired, and stir carefully until the sugar is dissolved. Serve cold.

PRUNES

Prepare according to the general rule. For each 2 cupfuls of prunes add about 1/4 cupful of sugar and one tablespoonful of lemon juice. The sugar may be omitted and only the lemon juice added.

APRICOTS

Prepare according to the general rule. For 1/2 pound of apricots add 1/2 cupful of sugar.

TO PREPARE RAISINS FOR COOKING.--Raisins that are sold in packages need only slight washing. Before using, they should be separated and examined for any bits of stem that have not been removed before packing. It is desirable to cut each raisin in halves when used for cakes and breads.

Raisins that are sold by "bulk" need careful washing. Place seeded raisins in a strainer and pour cold water over them; drain well. If the raisins are to be used at once or in a cake, dry them on a towel.

If raisins are to be seeded, cover them with boiling water. When they are soft, drain and press out the seeds.

TO PREPARE CURRANTS FOR COOKING.--"Package" currants need but little washing, but they should be examined carefully for bits of stem before using. To clean "bulk" currants place them in a colander or strainer, shake flour over them, and rub the floured currants between the hands. Pour water through the strainer until the water comes through clear. If the currants are to be used in a cake, dry them in the sun, on a towel, or in a "cool" oven.

MIXED FRUIT SAUCE

1/2 pound dried apricots 1 pint water 1 cupful raisins 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 lemon,--juice 1 orange,--juice and grated rind 5/8 cupful sugar

Soak the apricots for several hours or overnight in the water. Add the other fruits and cook the mixture at simmering temperature until the apricots and raisins are tender. Add the sugar and salt. Stir until dissolved. Serve the sauce cold as a dessert.

QUESTIONS

Weigh 1 cupful of dried fruit and record weight.

Weigh and measure soaked fruit (1 cupful before soaking) and record weight and measure. To what is the increase in measure of the soaked fruit due? What use should be made of the water in which dried fruit is soaked? What does this water contain? (See Experiment 10.)

What is the purpose of soaking dried fruit before cooking?

What is the purpose of covering the fruit while soaking?

Using the data regarding fresh fruit obtained in Lesson I, and that obtained by weighing dried fruit before and after soaking, estimate the difference in the cost of one pound of fresh and of soaked dried fruit.

State two reasons for combining raisins with apples and apricots in Baked Apples and Mixed Fruit Sauce.

LESSON XVIII

SUGAR-RICH FRUITS: DRIED FRUITS (B)

DESSERTS AND FOOD VALUE.--Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. Under these conditions they are digested often with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other foods have been eaten. Not only dried fruits and nuts but other desserts often prove distressing, not because they are unwholesome, but because too much food has been eaten.

PRUNE PUDDING

1 cupful cooked prunes, seeded and chopped 1/2 cupful sugar 1 cupful chopped nuts 1/2 cupful milk or prune water 1 teaspoonful vanilla 1 tablespoonful butter _or_ substitute, melted 3 crackers (rolled fine) _or_ 1/2 cupful dried bread crumbs 1 teaspoonful baking powder Salt

Mix all the ingredients. Pour into a buttered baking-dish. Place the baking-dish in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes, or until the mixture is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream.

DATE PUDDING

1/2 cupful sugar 1 egg 2 tablespoonfuls milk 1/3 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful baking powder Salt 1 cupful dates, seeded, and cut in pieces 1 cupful California walnuts, chopped

Mix the sugar, milk, and egg. Mix the remaining ingredients; then add to the first mixture. Mix, and turn into an oiled baking-dish or pan. Bake in a moderate oven from 30 to 40 minutes or until it is firm. Serve hot or cold with plain or whipped cream.

QUESTIONS

How many dry, uncooked prunes are required to make 1 cupful of cooked prunes? (See _Questions_, Lesson XVII.)

What are the prices per pound of figs and dates?

How many will the above recipes serve?

What ingredients in these puddings scorch readily? Why is Prune Pudding surrounded with hot water during baking?

LESSON XIX

CEREALS: STARCH AND CELLULOSE

STARCH is a very important FUEL food; like sugar, it gives energy to the body. Starch is closely related to sugar; it has much the same composition and the same use in the body. In certain respects, however, starch differs from sugar.

EXPERIMENT 14: THE STARCH TEST.--Put a drop of tincture of iodine on,-- corn-starch, flour, rice, cream of wheat, wheatena, oatmeal, tapioca, potato, meat, and egg. What is the result?

If a substance contains starch, it changes to a blue color when tincture of iodine is added to it.

From these experiments determine in which class--animal or vegetable--the starchy foods belong.

EXPERIMENT 15: THE EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON STARCH.--Mix half a teaspoonful of corn-starch or flour with cold water in a test tube or glass cup. What happens to a solid substance when it is dissolved? (See Experiment 6.) Set the mixture aside for a few minutes, then note its appearance. Is starch soluble in cold water? What important difference between starch and sugar does this experiment show?

EXPERIMENT 16: THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON STARCH.--Hold to the light the starch and water mixture from Experiment 15. Is it opaque or transparent? Turn the mixture into a saucepan, heat, and stir it; return the mixture to the test tube or cup and again hold it to the light. What change was caused by heating it? Set the mixture aside for a few minutes. Have the starch and water separated as in the uncooked starch? Can you say it is insoluble, like uncooked starch? Can you say it is soluble, like sugar? What term indicating a half-dissolved condition can you apply to the cooked starch?

EXPERIMENT 17: STIFFENING OF COOKED STARCH.--Place the test tube containing cooked starch from Experiment 16 in cold water. After ten minutes examine it. Can you pour it out of the tube? How does cooked starch change when cooled?

EXPERIMENT 18: THE STRUCTURE OF STARCH.--Examine starch under the microscope. While you are still looking through the microscope, make a drawing of several grains of starch. Insert this drawing in your notebook.

CELLULOSE.--Cellulose is a tough substance found in the fiber of wood. As previously mentioned the outside covering of vegetables and fruits and their interior framework contain much cellulose. The fibrous material found in rolled oats consists almost entirely of cellulose.

EXPERIMENT 19: SEPARATION OF CELLULOSE AND STARCH.--Place a heaping teaspoonful of rolled oats in a cup and add just enough water to cover it. Allow it to stand for at least 15 minutes. Pour the mixture into a cheese- cloth and press out the moisture and much of the starch, catching it in a saucepan. Rinse the starch out of the cloth as thoroughly as possible by holding it under running water. Examine the substance remaining in the cloth. Tear it into pieces. Is it tough? Does it suggest any common material? What is it? Heat the contents of the saucepan. What is this substance?

The tiny grains of starch shown under the microscope (see Figure 23) contain both starch and cellulose. The latter forms the outer covering of the microscopic grains. Starchy vegetables contain much cellulose: (_a_) in the outside covering; (_b_) in the interior framework; (_c_) in the covering of the starch grains.

Some plants rich in cellulose can be eaten in the raw state. But certain fibrous foods, especially cereals or grains, are irritating if eaten in the uncooked condition. It is necessary to soften them if used as food. Now cellulose itself is not soluble in cold or hot water nor is it softened by boiling in water. But other materials existing with cellulose are softened or changed by cooking. Hence changes in these substances in contact with the cellulose brought about by boiling water soften the food and separate cellulose fibers.

Heat and moisture applied to starchy foods serve three important purposes:

(_a_) They soften the food; (_b_) they change the starch to a paste or make it semisoluble; (_c_) they improve the flavor.

Cellulose is not a fuel material; it does not serve in the body as an energy-giver. Its value in diet is due to the fact that it is bulky and furnishes ballast for the alimentary canal. It stimulates the flow of the digestive juices as it brushes against the walls of the digestive tract, and thus aids in the digestion of foods and in the elimination of waste material.

CARBOHYDRATE, A FOODSTUFF.--Because sugar, starch, and cellulose have somewhat the same composition and some properties in common, they are grouped into one class, viz. _carbohydrate_. Sugar, starch, and cellulose are all included in the term carbohydrate. _Carbohydrate is one of the foodstuffs_. Sugar is a food containing only the carbohydrate foodstuff. Cereals contain not only carbohydrates but other foodstuffs. They contain, however, a larger quantity of carbohydrate than any of the other foodstuffs, for which reason they are classed as carbohydrate-rich foods.

CEREALS.--Cereals are cultivated grasses, the seeds of which are used for food. The most important are wheat, Indian corn or maize, rice, oats, rye, and barley. From these many different kinds of flours, meals, and breakfast foods are prepared.

Cereals rank high in nutritive value. Many of them contain about 75 per cent of starch. They also contain ash and a substance which builds the body. Because they are widely distributed in various climates, they have an important place in man's diet.

At market one finds two classes of cereals sold as breakfast foods--(1) the ready to eat and (2) the uncooked or partially cooked grains. The ready-to-eat cereals cost much more per pound than the cereals that require cooking. The difference in the price per pound, however, is not an accurate difference in the cost of the two, for the cost of the fuel in cooking grains at home must be taken into consideration.

Of the cereals that require cooking, those that are partially cooked are doubtless the more popular. Many of these such as rolled oats or wheat are steamed and rolled. Hence they take much less time to prepare in the home kitchen than the uncooked grains.

All breakfast cereals require long cooking to make them most palatable, the time of cooking depending upon the character of the cellulose and the method of preparing the cereal for market.

Most partially cooked grains are improved by a longer cooking than is usually given them. It is interesting to measure equal quantities of a rolled cereal and cook one quantity for 20 minutes and the other for 1 1/2 hours and taste each. The superior flavor and texture of the well-cooked cereal is well worth the additional length of time of cocking. Grains are also found on sale in bulk and in package. The latter cost more but insure greater cleanliness. Since, however, cereals sold in bulk are those that require cooking, they will be thoroughly sterilized before serving and need occasion no concern regarding their cleanliness.

GENERAL RULES FOR COOKING CEREALS.--Pour the cereal slowly into boiling salted water. Cook directly over the flame for about 10 minutes. Then place over boiling water and cook from 1/2 to 8 hours. Usually _one teaspoonful of salt_ is used for _each cupful of cereal_. The quantity of water depends upon the kind of cereal. The double boiler is particularly good for cooking cereals. The _fireless cooker_ also is a most satisfactory device for cooking these foods easily and economically.

Starchy foods are most easily digested when well masticated. Dry foods require more mastication than moist foods. It is well then to have the water used in cooking the cereal entirely absorbed. If, when nearly done, the cereal is too moist, uncover the vessel and cook until the excess of water is evaporated.

Care should be taken, however, not to allow a tough skin to form on the top of the cereal. This digests with difficulty. Its formation can be prevented by keeping the cereal covered or by stirring occasionally.

Heat ready-to-eat cereals in the oven until they are crisp.

ROLLED OATS OR WHEAT

3 cupfuls boiling water 1 cupful cereal 1 teaspoonful salt

Prepare according to the general directions, cooking in the double boiler at least 1 1/2 hours.

CREAM OF WHEAT OR WHEATENA

3 cupfuls boiling water 1/2 cupful cereal 1 teaspoonful salt

Prepare according to the general rule, cooking in the double boiler at least 1/2 hour.