Chapter 4

SOLUTION AND DIGESTION.--The change of foods in the body from insoluble to a soluble form is one step in digestion. Foods are dissolved in the digestive juices of the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Some foods such as salt and certain sugars are readily dissolved. Other foods have to undergo changes before they will dissolve. Corn-starch, for example, does not dissolve in cold water. It must be changed into sugar (which is easily dissolved) in the process of digestion. Dissolving then is an important step in the process of digesting.

USE OF WATER IN THE BODY.--A person might live for a number of weeks without eating food, but he could live only a few days without drinking water. Water has many uses in the body.

(_a_) It is the greatest known solvent. Because of this property, water is extremely important in the processes of digestion. (See _Solution and Digestion_.)

(_b_) It is a great carrier. Water helps carry food materials to all parts of the body; and it aids in carrying off the wastes of the body.

(_c_) It assists in regulating the temperature of the body. Because water is present in blood, and blood flows from the warmer interior of the body to the colder exterior, the water aids in distributing the heat of the body. The evaporation of perspiration, which is largely composed of water, also aids in regulating body temperature.

It is thus readily seen that water is needed to keep the machinery of the body working smoothly. The uses of water may be summed up in the statement: _Water aids in regulating body processes_.

FOREIGN MATERIALS IN WATER.--Since water is such a ready solvent, it contains many foreign materials. In passing through the air and in flowing through the ground, it dissolves many substances. Some of these substances are harmless, while some contain disease bacteria and are dangerous. Well water is frequently contaminated. It is often not safe to use for drinking purposes unless boiled.

EXPERIMENT 7: PRESENCE OF GASES IN WATER.--Fill a beaker half full of water, and note its temperature. Heat the water, and observe the changes which take place. What appears on the sides and bottom of the beaker? What does water contain which is driven off by heat?

EXPERIMENT 8: SIMMERING AND BOILING OF WATER.--Continue to heat the water of Experiment 7 until the larger bubbles form and disappear at the surface of the water. Note the temperature. Continue to heat the water until bubbling occurs on the surface of the water. Note the temperature. What is indicated by the larger bubbles?

HEATING WATER.--When bubbling occurs below the surface, water is _simmering_. When the surface is in motion and steam is given off, water is _boiling_.

The loss of gases makes boiled water taste flat or insipid. This flatness can be overcome somewhat by _aerating_ the water after boiling, _i.e._ by pouring it from one vessel into another and thus mixing air with it.

TEA AND ITS SELECTION.--Tea shrubs grow in India, Ceylon, China, and Japan (see Figure 19). The buds and leaves of these shrubs are cut and dried and sold as tea.

In buying tea the size of the dried leaves should be noted. The smallest leaves are those which have grown nearest the tip of the twig and hence are the youngest. These make the choicest tea. The older and larger leaves make tea of less fine flavor. "Flowery Pekoe" and "Orange Pekoe" are choice India teas. These brands consist of the buds and youngest leaves.

Another point to consider in buying tea is its color. Tea leaves are either black or green. The chief difference between black and green tea is that black tea leaves are fermented after picking, while green are not. Tea leaves contain flavoring and stimulating materials and a substance called _tannin_ (sometimes called tannic acid) which interferes with digestion. The presence of tannin in both black and green tea can be shown by the following:

EXPERIMENT 9: TANNIN IN TEA.--(_a_) Put 1/2 teaspoonful of black tea in a cup. Add 1/2 cupful of boiling water. Let it stand for 5 minutes, then strain the infusion.

(_b_) Repeat (_a_) substituting green tea for black.

(_c_) Into 2 test tubes put 1 teaspoonful of each kind of beverage. To each tube, add 1/2 teaspoonful of ferrous sulphate solution and let the tubes stand. If a black substance appears in the tubes, tannin is present. Which kind of beverage,--black or green tea,--shows the greater quantity of tannin?

By fermentation, tannin is changed into a _less soluble form_, so the beverage made from black tea contains less tannin than that made from green tea. Hence, black tea is preferable. It is, however, slightly more stimulating than green tea. Good black tea is grayish black in color, not dead black. "English Breakfast" is a black tea. It consists of a mixture of several black teas. "Oolong" is black in appearance, but has the flavor of green tea. This is because it is only semi-fermented. Teas grown in various countries have different flavors.

Tea is sometimes adulterated by using the leaves of other plants or by adding large leaves and stems. It is said the finest brands of tea do not reach this country.

MAKING THE BEVERAGE.--Because tea contains tannic acid, an earthen, enamel, china, or silver teapot should be used; a tin teapot should never be used. (See _Suggestions for Cooking Fruits_.) The ingredient in tea that gives it its odor and flavor is a volatile substance. Hence tea leaves should be kept in closely covered jars or cans.

Boiling water draws out substances which give the beverage its flavor and stimulating properties, while water below the boiling point only partially draws out these substances. If, however, the leaves are boiled or are allowed to remain in water for more than five minutes, much tannin is drawn out in the water. Therefore, never boil tea, but pour boiling water over it and in five minutes strain out the tea leaves.

TEA (proportion for one cupful)

1/4 to 1 teaspoonful black tea leaves 1 cupful freshly boiled water

Heat the teapot by pouring boiling water into it. Pour out the water and add the tea leaves. Pour over them the freshly boiled water. Place the teapot in a warm place to steep, and in 5 minutes strain out the tea leaves.

Teapots provided with perforated cups or with tea-balls (see Figure 20) for holding the tea leaves are most convenient, as the cup containing the leaves may easily be removed or the tea-ball can be drawn above the surface of the liquid after steeping the tea for 5 minutes. Or two teapots may be used, the beverage being strained from one teapot into the other.

The quantity of tea to be used varies with the strength of tea desired. If the leaves are closely rolled, less tea is required than if they are loosely folded.

Tea may be served with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar. The latter is called Russian Tea, and is often served with a preserved cherry.

In warm weather _Iced Tea_ may be served. "Left over" tea may be utilized in this way, or hot tea may be cooled quickly by adding ice to it. While the latter method requires more ice, the tea is considered of a finer flavor. Iced Tea is served usually with sugar and lemon. Since sugar does not dissolve as readily in cold solutions as in hot (see Experiments 10 and 11) a sirup may be prepared for sweetening Iced Tea.

Even though tea is carefully selected and prepared it contains some tannin. This, as has been mentioned, is injurious. The stimulating material in tea also distresses some persons. Children, nervous persons, and those who suffer from constipation are advised not to drink tea.

TOASTED WAFERS AND CHEESE

Spread crackers or wafers with a small quantity of cheese. Season the cheese with a sprinkling of salt and paprika. Brown the wafers in the oven. When the cheese is melted, the wafers are ready to serve.

If thick crackers are used, they may be split open and the broken surface spread with cheese.

QUESTIONS

By what means is flavor extracted from tea leaves?

How can the extraction of much tannic acid be avoided in tea?

Give the reason for using freshly boiled water for tea. (See Experiments 7 and 8.)

Which is the better kind of tea to use--black or green? Explain.

Why should tea be strained after steeping 5 minutes?

From your grocer learn the names and prices of two green and two black teas. From what countries do they come?

How many cupfuls in one pound of tea leaves? How many teaspoonfuls in a pound?

Determine the approximate number of wafers in a pound. Also estimate the quantity of cheese needed for one pound of wafers.

LESSON VIII

WATER AND BEVERAGES (B)

WATER AS A BEVERAGE.--Most foods contain water. Not only moist foods such as milk and watermelon, but solid foods such as potatoes and rice contain water. The water present in foods, however, is not sufficient for the needs of the body. It is necessary to use water as a beverage.

When one rises in the morning, it is well to drink one or two glassfuls of water. From one to two quarts of water,--either as plain water or in beverages,--should be taken each day. It used to be thought that water drinking during a meal was harmful. Scientific investigations have shown that this is a mistaken idea. Water may be drunk at mealtime. Indeed it has been found that it aids in the digestive processes, provided foods are not "rinsed down" with it and provided very cold water is not used.

WATER, A FOODSTUFF.--The body is nourished by food and there are many different kinds of food. Moreover, most foods are made up not of one substance, but of a number of materials. The chemical substances of which foods are composed are called _nutrients_ or _foodstuffs_ [Footnote 14: The difference between the scientific and popular meaning of the word foodstuffs should be noted. Foodstuffs is defined and used as a scientific term in this text.]. (Foodstuffs were formerly called _food principles.)_ A few foods contain but one foodstuff, some contain several foodstuffs, many contain all the foodstuffs.

Water is a foodstuff. There are other foodstuffs about which we shall study later. Each foodstuff has a certain function to perform in the body. As explained in the previous lesson, water is a _body-regulating foodstuff._

USE OF WATER IN CLEANING AND IN PREPARING FOODS.--Water is a cleansing agent because most soil is soluble in water. It also plays a most important part in the preparation of foods, since it serves as a medium for the cooking of foods, as in the processes of steaming and boiling. Because water dissolves many substances, it acts as a carrier of flavor as in fruit drinks, tea, and coffee. Although there are some foods which can be cooked without a water medium, baked potatoes and roast meat for example, certain foods such as rice and dried beans require water during cooking. It is readily seen that water is indispensable in cooking.

COFFEE.--Coffee is the seed of the fruit of an evergreen tree grown in tropical countries (see Figure 21). Each fruit contains two seeds or berries. The fruit is picked, allowed to ferment, and the seeds removed from their pulpy covering. The seeds, which are also called coffee beans, are then roasted and sent to market. The flavor of the coffee bean is due to the variety of coffee tree, the maturity of the fruit when picked, and the time subjected to the roasting process. Mocha [Footnote 15: Mocha is a port in Arabia. Mocha coffee was so called because much of the coffee grown in Arabia was exported from Mocha.] and Java are choice brands of coffee. Although originally grown in Arabia and Java, their names are not used to designate the localities in which they grow, but the variety of coffee. Much of our coffee now comes from Brazil.

Coffee is somewhat like tea in composition. It contains tannic acid, and therefore a tin coffeepot should never be used. The flavor can be extracted from coffee by boiling it or by pouring boiling water through it. Coffee should not boil longer than three minutes, as much tannic acid is extracted by long boiling.

Because coffee contains volatile substances, it should not be purchased ground, unless in small quantities, and it should then be kept in tightly covered jars or cans. When freshly roasted, coffee has the best flavor. In this condition, it is crisp and emits a strong aroma.

BOILED COFFEE (proportion for one cupful)

1 heaping tablespoonful coarsely ground coffee 2 tablespoonfuls cold water Bit of crushed egg-shell or a little egg white 1 cup boiling water (1 egg-shell or 1/2 egg white is sufficient for 8 heaping tablespoonfuls of ground coffee.)

Into a well-cleaned coffeepot, place the coffee, 1 tablespoonful of the cold water, and egg. Mix; then add the boiling water and boil for not more than three minutes. Remove from the fire; pour out about one half cupful of coffee, in order to rinse the grounds from the inside and from the spout of the coffeepot. Return the coffee to the pot; add the second tablespoonful of cold water. If the spout is not covered, a piece of paper may be inserted so that the aroma will be retained. Allow to stand in a warm place for about 5 minutes for the coffee to become clear.

Cold water may be used instead of boiling water in making coffee

CARE OF COFFEEPOT.--The coffee should never be allowed to stand in the coffeepot, but should be turned out at once after using. If any clear coffee is left, it may be used for spice cakes, jellies, or other desserts. The coffeepot should be washed well, and scoured if necessary. The spout needs special care in cleaning.

FILTERED COFFEE

2/3 cupful finely ground coffee 5 cupfuls freshly boiled water

(For the following method of preparing coffee, a _drip coffeepot_ is used. A drip coffeepot is provided with a perforated receptacle or a muslin bag in which the finely ground coffee is held. The boiled water is poured through the ground coffee.)

Heat the coffee by steaming it, placing a little boiling water in the bottom of the coffeepot and the ground coffee in the coffee bag or perforated cup. Remove the bag or cup and pour the water from the pot. Return the bag or cup to the coffeepot and slowly pour over it the freshly boiled water. If it is desired to make the coffee stronger, the beverage may be poured over the ground coffee a second time. Care should be taken, however, not to cool the coffee in so doing. Wash the coffee bag in clear cold water and dry in the air. Renew the bag occasionally. "_Black_" or _After Dinner Coffee_ may be prepared in a drip coffeepot. Use 1 cupful of finely ground coffee to 5 cupfuls of freshly boiled water.

Filtered coffee may also be prepared in a coffee percolator (see Figure 22). A percolator is so constructed that the water is heated in the pot and kept at boiling temperature while passing through the ground coffee. The method of preparing the beverage depends upon the construction of the percolator. Follow the directions that come with it.

OATMEAL COOKIES

1 egg 1/2 cupful sugar 3/8 cupful fat _or_ 1/4 cupful vegetable oil 2 tablespoonfuls sour milk 1 cupful rolled oats 1 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/8 teaspoonful baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 cupful raisins

Break the egg in a mixing bowl. Beat it, then add the sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat or oil to the sugar and egg mixture. Add the sour milk and rolled oats.

Sift the flour, then measure it. Turn it into a sifter, add the salt, baking soda, and baking powder. Sift these dry ingredients into the first mixture. Wash the raisins, dry them on a towel, then sprinkle a little flour over them and add to the other ingredients. Mix well and drop the mixture by the teaspoonfuls on an oiled baking sheet. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F.) until golden brown in color.

These cookies may be served with coffee.

QUESTIONS

How long should coffee boil? Why not boil it longer?

When the coffee is poured from the coffeepot, examine the grounds and then explain the use of the egg white and egg-shell in preparing coffee.

Why is a cupful of coffee poured out and returned to the coffeepot after the coffee is boiled?

Why should cold water be added to coffee after boiling?

In what form,--ground or whole,--should coffee be purchased? Why?

In what kind of jars should tea and coffee be kept? Explain.

How many cupfuls in one pound of coffee? Estimate the number of heaping tablespoonfuls in one pound of coffee.

What is the average price per pound of coffee?

RELATED WORK

LESSON IX

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 16: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--One of the most insistent ideas of modern educators is that the pupil be taught not merely to get him ready to live, footnote: but that he be taught to live. It is thought that the processes of present growth will serve as the best training for future needs. If the school girl is living in her home, she is in immediate need of such training as will help her contribute her share to the workings of her home. To a certain degree, success in school activities can be measured by the way they function in the home.

Perhaps there is no more effective way of making the school work function in the home than by the educative process called the _project_. Stevenson defines a project _as a problematic act carried to completion in its_ natural setting, while Kilpatrick says _a project is a whole- hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment_.

In order to aid the pupils in their home work, it is necessary to know the needs of the home. If possible, interest and cooperation of the pupils' mothers in this matter should be secured. It is hoped that the afternoon tea suggested in the following lesson may afford means for the teacher to become acquainted with the mother to find out something of the needs of the home and to secure the mother's cooperation for her daughter's work in the home.

In order to assign definite projects to the pupils, it will be necessary to confer with the girl. By discussing plans for home work you can doubtless discover what type of work interests her and what she can contribute with profit to her home. You can thus assign a project which will be performed in a "hearty" manner.

Definite plans should be made for carrying out the work in the home. For successful results it is most necessary that the pupil understand that a project is an act which involves _mental effort_, and that the activity must be _carried_ to _completion_. The fact that the project is to be performed in the home carries out one of the premises of the project, viz., that the act be performed in its natural setting or in a social environment. Reports concerning the progress and results of work should be submitted by the pupil. Home visitation on the part of the teacher is most desirable and in most cases necessary for satisfactory results.

The following articles regarding Projects are most illuminating:

Teachers College Record, Volume XIX, Number 4 (Sept. 1918), "The Project Method" by William H. Kilpatrick; The Journal of Home Economics, Volume X, Number 3 (Mar. 1918), "The Project in Home Economics Teaching" by W. W. Charters; School Science and Mathematics, Volume XIX (Jan. 1919), "The Project in Science Teaching" by John Alford Stevenson.]

WORTHY HOME MEMBERSHIP.--Each member of a home has certain obligations to fulfill. The course in foods which you are following in school offers an unusual opportunity for you to contribute your share in performing home duties. In a most definite way, it may help you to qualify for "worthy home membership."

APPLYING SCHOOL ACTIVITIES TO HOME WORK.--There is no more effective way of gaining skill in cooking and housekeeping than by applying the methods learned at school in your home. It is not enough for you to make cookies or cook potatoes once in the school kitchen. If you would become an expert in these processes, repeat them many times in your home. Your efforts will be more than repaid by your own growth and by the satisfaction your achievements will bring to the entire household.

Discuss your school work in food study with your mother. You will doubtless find many things of mutual interest and your mother will be glad to have your cooperation in housekeeping.

Household duties assigned by the teacher and performed in the home with a determination to accomplish a definite aim, we will term "Home Projects." To secure successful results, your home work must be done _thoughtfully_, and _earnestly_, and in a _whole-hearted_ way. We shall suppose, for example, that your teacher assigns you the home project of setting the table of the evening meal for one week. She also instructs you to keep in mind the following aims:

(1) To make as few trips as possible from the cupboard to the dining table.

(2) To plan the entire number of dishes, knives, forks, spoons, and other things needed during the meal, and then place these on the dining table or other suitable place where they may be conveniently obtained when the meal is being served.

In order to accomplish these things, you must work with a _determination_ to succeed at what you are doing and to keep your mind steadfastly on the work at hand. With such an attitude toward your work you will doubtless have accomplished several things by the end of a week. You will have set the table in an orderly manner, and thus have given real assistance and satisfaction to the members of your family; you will have become more skilful in spreading the table, and you will have made it possible to spend less time in setting the table in the future. You could not have accomplished all this if you had not earnestly thought as you worked.

You will find it interesting and beneficial to make each assignment of home work as complete as possible. If, for example, you are to make cakes, it will be most desirable if you not only mix and bake cakes, but, if possible, select and purchase the materials for them and compute their cost.

Suggestions for Home Projects:

Make the beverages for one or more meals each day. Wash the dishes of the evening meal. Prepare a scalloped dish or any of the foods given in Lessons I to V once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To prepare tea or coffee so as to draw out as little tannin as possible.

(2) To wash dishes well but to make as few movements as possible. To note the time required to do the dishes each day and by means of efficiency methods strive to lessen the time.

(3) To utilize left-over pieces or crumbs of bread in preparing scalloped dishes. To prepare seasonable fruits and vegetables so well that the members of your home will find them most palatable.

LESSON X

AFTERNOON TEA

PLANNING THE TEA.--To entertain friends is a pleasure. Meeting friends or having them become acquainted with a pleasure. This lesson is arranged that you may entertain your mother at afternoon tea and that she may visit with your teacher and classmates.

In planning for any special occasion, it is necessary to decide upon the day and hour for the party. If the occasion is at all formal, or if a number of persons are to be present, it is also necessary to plan how to entertain your guests,--what you will have them do to have a pleasant time. If it is desired to serve refreshments, you must decide what to serve, how much to prepare, and when to prepare the foods. The method of serving them must also be considered.

The Refreshments for an afternoon tea should be dainty and served in small portions. Tea served with thin slices of lemon or cream and sugar and accompanied by wafers, sandwiches, or small cakes is the usual menu. Sweets or candies are often served with these foods.