Chapter 31

(2) _Cereals and Breads_.--Well-cooked cereals are among the essential foods of childhood. "Ready-to-serve" breakfast cereals are undesirable as staples for young children. Cereals should be _cooked_ from _one_ to _three hours_. For very young children (under eighteen months) all cereals must be strained. For older children, unstrained cereals may be used, provided they are thoroughly cooked. Frequent use of the whole grains, as rolled oats and wheat, is recommended. These cereals contain more protein and ash than the finer cereals and hence may be better body-builders, but they also contain much bran. Usually the latter does not prove irritating if thoroughly cooked. But if these coarse cereals do cause irritation they should either be strained or the cereals containing less bran, as cream of wheat, farina, and arrowroot, should be used. Cereals should be served with milk or cream, but with no sugar or sirup or not more than one teaspoonful to a serving.

Carefully made toast, "zwieback," and stale bread may be given to young children. On account of the difficulty in digesting fresh breads, they are excluded from children's diet.

(3) _Eggs_ are especially good foods for children, provided they are fresh and properly cooked. They should be cooked in some way which leaves them soft such as soft-cooking or poaching. Only soft-cooked egg yolks should be given to children under three years. One whole egg per day may be included in the diet of older children.

(4) _Broth and Meat_.--There is some difference of opinion regarding the use of meat in children's diet. Some authorities advise beef broth and the more easily digested meats for young children. Others say that if a generous amount of eggs and milk is included in children's diet, it is well not to give them meat before eight years. In the diets for children from two to eight years, neither broth nor meat is included. It is possible to obtain sufficient protein from milk and eggs. Doubtless, as with adults, most young children would be benefited by much less meat than is generally given them or by none at all. If meat is given to young children, it should be scraped (see Experiment 50) and pan-broiled (see _Pan-Broiling_), as it is somewhat difficult to masticate.

(5) _Fresh Vegetables_ should be included in children's diet. For very young children select mild vegetables such as spinach, asparagus tips, string beans, and peas. Cook until very soft and press through a sieve or mash. Later, such cooked vegetables as potatoes (baked or mashed), beets, carrots, cauliflower, and squash may be added. No uncooked vegetables should be given to young children.

(6) _Fruits and Sugar_.--Fruits are especially valuable for children. Care should be taken, however, in selecting fruits. It is said that until a child is five years old only cooked fruits and the juice of fresh fruits should be given. For very young children the juice of orange or the pulp of cooked prunes should be given daily, because they contain valuable nutrients and possess laxative properties. For older children the cooked food fruits (see _Kinds of Fruits_) such as dates, figs, and raisins (without seeds), and bananas (baked) are desirable. Apples, peaches, and apricots, baked or made into sauces, are also suggested.

Fruits should be cooked with little or no sugar. Sweets in the form of sweet fruits rather than sugar and candy should be given to children under six years. After six years, very little candy or sweet chocolate may be given at the end of a meal, not between meals. It is a mistake to give children candy just because they want it (see _The Use of Candy in Diet_.)

(7) _Desserts_.--Fruits selected and prepared as given in the previous section, very plain cakes--sponge cake and those containing little fat--and easily digested desserts made of eggs, milk, cereals, etc., are the only desserts suitable for young children.

(8) _Water and Other Beverages_.--"Pure" water in generous quantities is needed for children. Water and milk are the only beverages (if milk can be considered a beverage) that should be given to children under six years. After that age, cocoa made with much milk may be given, but not tea, coffee, or any carbonated drinks.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER DIET FOR CHILDREN cannot be over-emphasized. It is a child's right to be "hardy." Good food in proper quantity given at the right time is essential for the sure and steady growth of the body. The child's future health, usefulness, and happiness depend much upon the nourishment he receives. If insufficient food, or food lacking in foodstuffs for growth, is given to children, a wasting away of brain cells and muscle may take place and stunted growth will result. The additional care in preparing special menus for children is an effort well worth making; its compensation is inestimable. If from babyhood a child is given his own special diet, it is possible to satisfy him at the table with food that differs from that of the rest of the family. Habits of eating plain food should be established in childhood. Mrs. Richards says: "Habit rather than instinct guides civilized man in the choice of food." Likes or dislikes for food should not be discussed in the presence of children. Such discussions may establish distaste for a food of decided nutritive value.

_Regularity in feeding_ children is most important. There should be no lunches between meals. It is important also that a child be taught to _masticate_ food thoroughly.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS OF CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT AGES.--It is difficult to write definitely regarding the quantity of food that should be given to children. As with adults, some children require more than others. The personal factor enters largely into this question. In Lesson CXXIV the energy requirements of children of different ages are given (see _Relation of Age to Daily Energy Requirement_). As stated there, these tables indicate the energy requirement of children of normal size, development, and activity. Note that in the menus given below the Calories derived from protein are approximately one seventh of the total Calories (see _Daily Protein Requirement_).

The following menus [Footnote 120: Prepared by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Nutrition, School of Household Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University (see Teachers College Bulletin, "The Feeding of Young Children," pp. 6-9).] for children from two to twelve years were prepared for average children of moderate activity in a family of limited income.

MEALS FOR ONE DAY

_Child 2-4 Years Old_

Breakfast: 7:30 A.M. Oatmeal Mush 0.8 ounce dry cereal Milk 1 1/2 cupfuls Stale Bread 1 slice Orange Juice 4 tablespoonfuls

Lunch: 11 A.M. Milk 1 cupful Stale Bread 1 slice Butter 1 teaspoonful

Dinner: 1 P.M. Baked Potato 1 Boiled Onion (Mashed) 1 Bread and Butter 1 slice Milk to Drink 1 cupful Baked Apple 1

Supper: 5:30 P.M. Boiled Rice 1 cupful Milk 3/4 cupful Bread and Butter 1 slice

Fuel Value, 1313 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 191.2.

Substitutes or Additions:

For Rolled Oats or Rice: Other cereals, such as rolled wheat, wheaten grits, farina, hominy, and corn-meal.

For Orange Juice and Baked Apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce.

For Onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflower tips.

An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two or three times a week.

These changes will alter the cost somewhat.

_Child 4-8 Years Old_

Breakfast: Oatmeal 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal Top Milk 4 ounces Stewed Prunes 4 or 5 Toast 1 slice Milk to Drink 6 ounces

Dinner: Pea Soup 1 cupful Croutons 1 slice bread Boiled Onions 2 small Baked Potato 1 large Molasses Cookies 2

Supper: Cream Toast 2 slices bread Rice Pudding with Milk and Sugar 1 cupful Milk to Drink 5 ounces

Fuel Value, 1892 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 261.6.

Substitutes or Additions:

For Rolled Oats: Other cereals, as suggested on previous page.

For Onions and Peas: Strained dried beans; other vegetables carefully cooked; fresh lettuce.

For Prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits well cooked.

For Rice Pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc manges, bread puddings, and other very simple desserts.

For Cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or very plain cookies.

_Child 8-12 Years Old_

Breakfast: Oatmeal Mush 1 1/2 ounces dry cereal Top Milk 6 ounces Stewed Prunes 6 or 7 Toast 2 slices Milk to Drink 6 ounces

Luncheon: Pea Soup 1 cupful Boiled Onions 2 small Baked Potato 1 large Bread and Butter 2 slices bread Molasses Cookies 3 cookies

Dinner: Baked Haddock small serving (2 ounces) Creamed Hashed Potato 3/4 cupful Spinach 1/2 cupful Bread and Butter 2 slices Rice Pudding--Milk and Sugar 1 cupful

Fuel Value, 2420 Calories; Calories derived from protein, 345.6.

Substitutes or Additions:

For Rolled Oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked.

For Haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish, especially white varieties.

For Prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked.

For Onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. Peas or Spinach: Turnips or cauliflower.

_Suggestive Dietary for Child who will not Drink Milk, Age 5 Years_

(1 quart milk concealed in the menu.)

Breakfast: 7 A.M. Oatmeal 1/4 cup cereal cooked in 1 cupful milk Creamy Egg on Toast 1 egg yolk with 1/2 slice bread and 1/4 cupful milk Cocoa 1 teaspoonful cocoa and 1/4 cupful milk

10 A.M. "Zwieback" and Cream 1 piece "zwieback" and 1 tablespoonful cream

1:30 P.M. Spinach Soup 4 ounces Baked Potato with 1 potato and 2 tablespoonfuls Cream cream Bread and Butter 1 slice Caramel Junket 1 1/2 cupfuls

5:30 P.M. Rice and Prunes 2 tablespoonfuls rice cooked in 1/2 cupful milk, and 5 prunes "Zwieback" 1 slice

Total Calories, 1431; Calories from protein, 207.6.

QUESTIONS

Give at least three reasons why young children should have different food from adults.

Why are not ready-to-serve cereals suitable staple foods for young children?

What are the advantages of using whole grains for children's food?

Why not serve sugar with breakfast cereals for children?

Why is not meat a desirable food for most young children?

Why are fresh vegetables and fruits such necessary foods for children?

LESSON CLXIII

PLANNING AND PREPARING MENUS FOR CHILDREN

Plan [Footnote 121: See Footnote 72.] a day's feeding for a child of five years, meeting the total energy and the protein requirements. Prepare these foods.

LESSON CLXIV

REVIEW--MEAL COOKING

MENU

Creamed Vegetable Apricot Dainty Coffee

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CLXV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 122: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan a week's diet for a small sister, brother, or other child in whom you are interested. (Follow suggestions given in Lesson CLXII.) Calculate the total Calorific value and Calories derived from protein. Does your menu consist of foods which furnish the proper Calorific value and Calories derived from protein?

SUPPOSED AIMS: (1) If your menus do not conform to the requirements, to change them so as to meet the requirements of the young child.

(2) If possible, to arrange to have your menus prepared and fed to the child, assisting as much as possible in the preparation of the food and in the feeding of the child.

DIVISION SEVENTEEN

FOOD PRESERVATION

LESSON CLXVI

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD

WHY FOODS SPOIL.--Most foods spoil or change readily,--fruits decay, milk sours, butter becomes rancid, and meat putrefies. Knowledge concerning the spoiling of foods makes it possible for the housekeeper to preserve foods from one season to another; it gives her the assurance that her preserved fruit will "keep."

The decay of foods is due largely to the existence of minute vegetable organisms or microorganisms. These microorganisms are molds, yeasts, and bacteria. The molds (see Figure 88) are visible to the naked eye, the yeasts (see Figure 86) and bacteria (see Figure 89) are microscopic in size. These plants exist everywhere, and in everything (except those things in which the organisms have been destroyed and prevented from reentering),--in the air, in and on foods, and all over our bodies. Like all plants, these organisms require warmth, moisture, and food for their most rapid growth. Oxygen is necessary for the growth of some of these plants.

Many foods constitute nourishment for these organisms. It is because these plants exist in foods and live upon them that changes in foods result. The mold on bread and fruit, the odor from decaying meat and eggs, the liquefaction of decayed eggs, and the gas from fermenting canned fruit are caused by microorganisms existing and growing in these foods. The following experiments show the growth of molds on food and other materials:

EXPERIMENT 80: EFFECT OF AIR, LIGHT, AND DRYING UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS. --Place a piece of bread on a saucer. Allow it to remain uncovered, in a light place, at room temperature, for several days. Examine. What is the condition (moist or dry) of the bread? Have molds grown upon the bread?

EXPERIMENT 81: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LIGHT UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.-- Sprinkle a thick piece of bread with water, place it on a saucer, and cover with a jelly glass or any glass dish. Leave in a light place at room temperature for several days. Examine. Is the bread moist or dry? Have molds grown upon the bread?

From the results of Experiments 80 and 81 what would you say has caused the molds to grow? What conclusion can you draw

from this concerning the growth of molds upon foods in damp and dry places and in damp and dry weather? How should bread be stored in dry weather? In damp weather? Give the reason for storing Dried Bread Crumbs as directed in Lesson L.

EXPERIMENT 82: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND DARKNESS UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.-- Repeat Experiment 81, except the method of covering. Cover with an earthen dish so that the light is excluded. Let it remain at room temperature for the same length of time as given in Experiment 81. Have molds grown? How does the growth compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81?

EXPERIMENT 83: EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND LOW TEMPERATURES UPON THE GROWTH OF MOLDS.--Repeat Experiment 81, but place the bread on the lower shelf of the refrigerator. After several days, examine. Have molds grown? How do they compare in quantity with that of Experiment 81? What conclusion can you draw from this concerning the temperature at which food liable to mold should be kept?

EXPERIMENT 84: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CUT FRUIT.--Place pieces of apple, banana, lemon, or other fruits on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish. Place some lemon or other fruit juice in a test tube and allow it to stand. After two days examine. Have molds grown on all the fruits? Do you notice any difference in the quantity of the molds on the different fruits? Have molds grown on the fruit juice?

EXPERIMENT 85: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON WHOLE FRUITS.--Place whole fruits, such as apples and lemons, on saucers and cover with glass. After two days examine. Have molds grown upon the whole fruits? If so, how do the molds compare in quantity to those growing on cut fruit? Account for this difference. Apply the results of Experiments 84 and 85 to the "keeping" of fresh fruits.

EXPERIMENT 86: GROWTH OF MOLDS ON OTHER FOODS.--Place a piece of cheese and a piece of meat on separate saucers and cover each with a glass dish. After two days examine. Have molds grown upon these foods? Account for the growth of molds upon these foods when no moisture was added to them. Devise a method for keeping cheese free from mold. Give the reasons for your method.

EXPERIMENT 87: GROWTH OF MOLD UPON WOOD.--Soak a bit of wood in water for at least 15 minutes. Cover it with an earthen dish and let it stand at room temperature for several days. Examine. Have molds grown upon the wood? What has caused the molds to grow upon the wood? From this give directions for the care of the wooden part of the dasher of an ice cream freezer. Draw conclusions concerning the care of pastry and bread boards and butter paddles after scrubbing. Draw conclusions concerning the scrubbing, drying, and airing of wooden floors.

EXPERIMENT 88: GROWTH OF MOLDS UPON CLOTH.--Sprinkle a bit of cloth with water. Cover with an earthen dish. Let stand a few days at room temperature. Examine. Have molds (mildew) grown upon the cloth? What caused the molds to grow? From this draw a conclusion concerning the care of washed clothes, wet dish-cloths, towels, and wash-cloths.

EXPERIMENT 89: CONTAMINATION OF FRESH FOOD BY MEANS OF MOLDY FOOD.--Dip a piece of bread in water and place it on a saucer. With a knitting needle, place bits of mold at several points on the surface of the bread. Cover with a glass dish. After several days examine. At what points on the bread have the molds started to grow? What conclusion can you draw from this concerning the placing of moldy food with fresh food? When fruit is falling to the ground, tell how an orchard should be cared for. Explain.

The following experiments show the growth of bacteria on food:

EXPERIMENT 90: GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Into test tubes put one of the following foods: (1) bit of uncooked meat; (2) small quantity of egg; (3) piece of bread; (4) crushed peas or beans; (5) sugar or syrup. Add a little water to each tube. Set aside in a warm place. After several days, examine. What change in appearance do you note? What has caused the foods to spoil?

EXPERIMENT 91: EFFECT OF BOILING ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Place a little chopped meat in two test tubes. Add lukewarm water to each. Boil the contents of one of the tubes for several minutes. Set both aside. After 24 hours, examine. What difference is there in the condition of the meat in each tube? Explain this difference. From the result of this Experiment draw conclusions regarding the boiling of food to prevent spoiling.

EXPERIMENT 92: EFFECT OF PRESERVATIVES ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA.--Beat slightly an egg white. Add to it 1/2 cupful of water. Pour a little of the diluted egg white into four test tubes. To three of the test tubes add one of the following: (1) salt; (2) sugar; (3) vinegar. Put all of the tubes in a warm place. After several days, examine. What is the condition of the egg white in each tube? Explain. Draw inferences regarding the use of "safe" preservatives to prevent foods from spoiling.

THE PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVING FOOD.--Food may be preserved by opposing the growth of microorganisms or by destroying them. Low temperatures, certain preservatives, and drying destroy microorganisms or retard their growth.

Drying is effective in preserving such foods as fruits, certain vegetables, fish, and meats. The drying of fruit and vegetables may be done in the home. This process of food preservation is often advisable when there is an excessive supply of fruit or vegetables in the orchard or garden.

Substances known as _preservatives_ are used in food preservation. Some of these are harmless, as sugar, salt, vinegar, and spices. Others are harmful, as formaldehyde, boric, salicylic, benzoic, and sulphurous acids, with their related compounds. Saltpeter and smoke are also preservatives. There is some doubt concerning the harmlessness of these latter preserving agents. Foods preserved with harmful materials should never be used. Good food materials can be preserved without the use of harmful preservatives.

The destruction of microorganisms by _heat_ is the basic principle of preserving much food, especially fruit and vegetables. In order to preserve fruits it is necessary to _process_ them, _i.e._ to apply heat in such a way as to insure preservation and secure the maximum of good quality. To do this, the fruit must be cooked well, packed in cans which have been boiled, and sealed to exclude the air from them. It is necessary, also, to sterilize all utensils which come in contact with the foods in the processes of cooking and sealing.

If canned fruits do not "keep," some microorganisms either in the fruit, on the can, or on the utensils used in canning, have not been destroyed, or the can has not been securely sealed. Slight flaws in the can or rubbers which were not detected at the time of sealing may cause the spoiling of carefully canned fruit. In the preservation of fruit, every effort should be made to secure sound fruit, perfect jars, and good rubbers, and to have the fruit and utensils perfectly processed, and the jars securely sealed. Failure to accomplish these ends may result in much loss of materials and time.

KINDS OF SPOILAGE.--As mentioned previously, canned foods spoil either from imperfect processing or sealing. Different organisms growing in preserved foods cause different kinds of spoilage. A discussion [Footnote 123: Adapted from Journal of Home Economics, Vol. X (July, 1918), pp. 329- 331, "A Consideration of the Canning Problem," by Elizabeth F. Genung.] of the various kinds of spoilage follows:

(_a_) FERMENTATION OR "SWELL."--When canned foods spoil with a production of gas, fermentation of the food is taking place. The visible indications of such spoilage are gas bubbles in the jar and a bulging of the lid of a jar or a distending of the top and bottom of a can. Because of the latter condition, the term "swell" is used in the commercial canning industry to designate this kind of spoilage. When fermentation takes place, the lid of a jar may become loosened instead of bulged.

This type of spoilage is caused by the action either of yeast or of a certain kind of bacterium which thrives best without air. It is usually due to imperfect sterilization. Fermentation can usually be detected by the presence of bubbles of gas in the jar and a loosening of the sealed cover.

(_b_) Flat Sour is a kind of spoilage in which no gas is formed, but acid is produced, giving the food a sour taste. In some cases of flat sour, a milky deposit appears in the bottom of the jar which can be detected if the container is glass. In other cases, no change in the appearance of the jar and its contents takes place.

Little is known of the kind of organism producing flat sour. Whether or not food thus spoiled is injurious also has not been determined.

Flat sour is probably due to imperfect sterilization.