Chapter 30
Cut 4 or 5 apples into slices, and for each apple use 2 tablespoonfuls (or more) of sugar. If the apples are not juicy, add from 1/2 to 1 tablespoonful of water for each apple. Flavor with 1 teaspoonful each of lemon juice and rind, 1/4 teaspoonful cinnamon or nutmeg, and 1/8 teaspoonful salt. Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, pour in the apple mixture. Add bits of butter, and cover with pastry as directed above. Bake until the apples are soft and the crust is brown, i.e. at 425 degrees F., 35 to 45 minutes.
Apple sauce may be used as a filling for a baked crust. Such a pie is sometimes covered with meringue or strips of pastry.
FRUIT PIE WITH TWO CRUSTS
2 cupfuls fruit 1/2 to 1 cupful sugar 3 tablespoonfuls flour
If the fruit is fresh, wash and drain it well. Mix the sugar and flour. Line the inside of a pie pan with pastry, add half of the sugar and flour mixture. Add the fruit, and then the remainder of the sugar and flour. Cover with a top crust according to the directions above.
QUESTIONS
Explain why pie with only one crust, if properly made, is more desirable than that with two crusts (see _Pie with Under Crust_).
Why should fresh fruit, for fruit pie with two crusts, be well drained after washing?
Give three ways of preventing the juice from boiling over, in a pie with two crusts.
Compare pastry that is made with lard, lard substitutes, vegetable oils and butter, as to taste, appearance, flakiness or friability, and tenderness.
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLVI
INFANT FEEDING
PERFECT FOOD FOR INFANTS.--Nature in her wisdom provides ideal food for the infant,--mother's milk. No perfect substitute has been found for it. It is most unfortunate when a child is denied this food.
It has been found [Footnote 117: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., p. 98.] that babies fed with mother's milk are much less likely to contract disease and much more apt to grow to maturity. A mother's milk is adapted to the needs of her child. It agrees with the infant and nourishes it well. A practical advantage of a healthy mother's milk is that it is sterile and of the proper temperature.
MODIFIED MILK.--In case it is necessary to give the infant artificial diet, the greatest care should be taken to provide clean, easily digested food. Cow's milk is the basis of the food generally chosen. The way babies digest cow's milk shows the necessity of changing or _modifying_ it to meet the needs of an infant. Cow's milk is modified sometimes by diluting it to make it digest easier and adding other ingredients to it. In order to increase the fuel value of diluted milk, carbohydrate food of some soluble, easily digested kind is added. Sometimes gruel or cereal water is used as one of the constituents of modified milk.
Formulas for modified milk vary with the individual infant. A physician should be consulted regarding the formula for food for a baby.
(_a_) _Utensils_ for measuring and preparing the ingredients of modified milk should be kept very clean. Before using, all glass and metal utensils used for measuring and holding the milk should be covered with cold water, then the water should be heated and allowed to boil for twenty minutes. Just before using rubber nipples, place them in boiling water for a few minutes. After using, they should be rinsed in cold water and then carefully washed inside and out with soap and water. When not in use, nipples should be kept in a clean covered jar or jelly glass. (The jar and cover should be sterilized daily.) After using the milk bottles (have as many bottles as there are feedings a day), rinse them in cold water, and then fill them with water and add a pinch of baking soda. Before filling the bottle with milk, wash with soap and water--using a bottle brush--and then sterilize in boiling water for twenty minutes (as directed above). Bacteria cannot pass through cotton, hence it is used for stoppering the filled milk bottles. It should be clean, however. Paper caps are also used.
(_b_)_ Ingredients_.--(1) _Milk_.--The selection of milk for an infant is an important consideration. _Clean milk_ is most essential. Milk is considered clean when it comes from dairy farms where clean milkers work under sanitary conditions, approved by a medical milk commission (see _Care of Milk_). Such milk contains few bacteria and is called _certified milk_. This is by far the safest milk for infant diet, but it is expensive. It usually costs almost twice as much as ordinary milk. Milk is _pasteurized_ commercially by heating it to 150 degrees F., keeping it at that temperature for about thirty minutes, and then quickly cooling it. While pasteurizing kills most of the disease-producing germs, it does not destroy all the spores (see _Microorganisms in theSpore Form_). The taste of milk is not affected by pasteurizing. Milk is _sterilized_--all germ life destroyed--by heating at 212 degrees F. from one to one and one half hours.
Since the value of milk as an infant food depends upon its cleanliness, it is difficult to state just how old milk may be before it is unsafe for infant feeding. It is safest to use only _fresh_ milk. Bacteria in milk may develop so rapidly that it is unfit to use a few hours after it has been drawn from the cow. Unless milk is certified, it should not be used in summer after it is twenty-four hours old, and in winter, after it is forty-eight hours old. _Bottled_ milk should be used for infants. According to most plans for modifying milk, _whole milk_ is used.
(2) _Sugar._--Several kinds of sugar are used in modified milk. These are:
Milk sugar or lactose. Malt sugar combined with dextrin or dextrimaltose. Granulated sugar or cane sugar.
The advice of a physician should be consulted regarding the kind of sugar best suited to the needs of the particular infant. The first two kinds of sugar can be obtained at a drug store. Granulated sugar is too sweet for general use.
(3) _Water or Cereal Water._--If plain water is to be used with milk, it should be boiled before adding to the other ingredients.
In some cases, gruel or cereal water is added. Usually rolled oats or barley flour is the grain used. To prepare either of these use:
4 tablespoonfuls rolled oats _or_ 3 tablespoonfuls barley flour 1 quart cold water
Mix and boil gently until the mixture is reduced to a pint. Then strain through a fine wire strainer or muslin.
(_c_) _Method of Mixing_.--Measure the sugar. This ingredient is usually measured in ounces, tablespoonfuls, or teaspoonfuls. (1 1/2 dipperfuls (Figure 87) of milk sugar weigh 1 ounce.) In the graduated measure (Figure 87), measure the water or cereal water for diluting the milk and dissolve the sugar in it. Stir the mixture until the sugar is completely dissolved. Then pour it into the mixing pitcher. Measure the milk (and other ingredients if required) and pour into pitcher. Mix thoroughly. While stirring, turn the proper quantity of food into as many sterilized bottles as are required for a day's feeding. Stopper with cotton or cap. If the milk used is certified, place in a clean refrigerator until used for feeding. If the milk is not certified, it may be pasteurized.
PASTEURIZING MILK AT HOME.--Place the bottles of milk in a wire basket. Then place the basket in a kettle. Pour water in the kettle so that the water is a little higher outside of the bottles than the surface of the milk inside. Heat the water and let it boil for 5 minutes. (Do not begin to count the time until the water reaches the boiling point.) At once cool the milk by allowing a stream of cold water to displace the hot water. Do not allow the cold water to run directly on the hot bottles. When the milk is cooled, place the bottles immediately in a clean refrigerator.
PREPARATION OF MILK BEFORE FEEDING.--At feeding time, milk should be heated to about 98 degrees F. Place the bottle in a pan of warm water. Test the milk for proper temperature. Use the method described in Junket "Custard", for testing the temperature of the milk. Shake the bottle before feeding.
OTHER FOODS GIVEN TO INFANTS.--In addition to modified milk, boiled water should be given to infants. A few other foods--egg yolk or vegetable juices and orange juice--may often be given during the first year. The egg yolk should be soft-cooked. This food supplies iron and increases the Calorific value of the diet. Orange juice (strained through muslin) may be usually given at five or six months of age. It is especially necessary to give orange juice to infants whose milk is pasteurized or sterilized. Its use prevents constipation and scurvy.
ENERGY REQUIREMENT OF AN INFANT.--The energy requirement of an infant is greater than one would suppose. Growth and development are going on at a rapid rate. Like the adult, a baby asleep needs energy to carry on the involuntary activities of its body. When awake such muscular activities as crying, kicking, and throwing of arms require energy. An infant's energy requirement is usually based upon its body weight. According to generally accepted standards [Footnote 118: See "Feeding the Family," by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D., p. 103.] an infant's average energy requirement is:
1st to 3d months 50 Calories per pound per day 4th to 6th months 45 Calories per pound per day 7th to 9th months 40 Calories per pound per day 10th to 12th months 35 Calories per pound per day
QUANTITY OF FOOD.--When a baby must be given artificial food entirely or as a supplement to natural food, it is safest and most satisfactory to follow the advice of a physician. It is said, however, that an infant requires an average of 1 1/2 ounces of milk per day for every pound of body weight. After the eighth month, this quantity of milk is usually decreased first to 1 1/3 and then to 1 1/4 ounces for every pound of body weight per day.
The amount of artificial food found satisfactory for the infant during the first few months of its life is usually not sufficient to yield as many Calories as given in the table above. But while the baby is adjusting itself to artificial feeding, it is especially necessary that the stomach be not overtaxed. As the infant develops, the quantity of food can be increased and the deficiency made up later.
QUESTIONS
Define certified, pasteurized, sterilized, modified, and top milk.
Give reasons for sterilizing utensils used for measuring and holding milk.
In preparing modified milk why is milk diluted? Why is sugar added?
What is the price per quart of certified milk?
LESSON CLVII
MODIFYING MILK
Modify cow's milk according to a formula secured from a physician or baby's dispensary. Pasteurize milk.
LESSON CLVIII
REVIEW--MEAL COOKING
MENU
Baked Sweet Potatoes or Scalloped Potatoes Apple Dumpling (made with pastry or biscuit dough)
See Lesson XIV, for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.
LESSON CLIX
HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 119: See Lesson IX.]
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--If pies are served in your home, bake at least one pie a week. In case pies are not used, bake cake in which different quantities of fat are used.
SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To compare One- and Two-crust Pies. Prepare each kind. Determine the difference in cost, time of preparation, and quality of the crust of each. Which kinds of pies do you consider more successful in regard to quality? Which is cheaper? Which kind meets the approval of other members of your home?
(2) To compare Cake Containing Little and Much Fat. Follow the recipe for One-egg or Plain Cake. Vary the quantity of fat from 1/8 to 1/2 cupful. Make comparisons regarding cost, texture, grain, and flavor. Which amount do you consider most successful from the standpoint of texture, grain, and flavor?
DIVISION SIXTEEN
FROZEN DESSERTS
LESSON CLX
METHOD OF FREEZING--WATER ICE
EXPERIMENT 79: MIXTURES FOR FREEZING.--Prepare 2 cupfuls of cracked ice. Place 1 cupful of the cracked ice in each of two bowls. To one bowl of ice add 1/3 cupful of rock salt, and mix thoroughly. Insert thermometers into both bowls and note temperature. What effect does the salt have upon the temperature of the ice?
Allow the ice mixture to stand a few minutes, then observe the difference in the condition of the ice in the two bowls. Besides lowering the temperature, what does the salt do to the ice?
FREEZING WITH ICE AND SALT.--When a solid substance is changed to a liquid, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. When solid ice liquefies, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Salt makes ice liquefy at a lower temperature, thus absorbing more heat from its surroundings. Since foods must be cooled, i.e. heat drawn from them, in order to freeze them, a mixture of ice and salt rather than ice is used in freezing.
If ice and salt surround a tin can containing substances to be frozen, from what is the heat absorbed when the ice is changed to liquid form? Explain why it is that a mixture of ice and salt, rather than ice alone, is used to freeze a dessert.
CONDUCTORS OF HEAT.--In Experiment 2 and in, _The Principle of Fireless Cookery_, it is shown that some materials are better conductors of heat than others. Which is a better conductor of heat, wood or metal? Explain why it is that most freezers consist of an inner can of metal and an outer bucket of wood. A few freezers have an outside metal bucket. Such freezing devices have been found more satisfactory when heavy paper is tied around the outer metal bucket.
COOLING BY EVAPORATION.--If a few drops of alcohol, ether, or gasoline are poured in the palm of the hand and allowed to evaporate, the hand feels cold. During evaporation, the liquid takes heat from the hand. When any liquid evaporates, heat is absorbed from surrounding materials. Water may be cooled by placing it in a porous jar and hanging it in a breeze.
When there is no ice, this principle of cooling by the rapid evaporation of a liquid may be applied to the cooling of butter and other foods. Wrap butter in an oiled paper and place it in a flower crock or any porous jar. Place the crock in a draft; put a bowl of water beside it. Wrap a wet cloth about the crock and place one end of it in the bowl of water. The continuous evaporation of the moisture keeps the food cool.
PREPARING AND PACKING THE FREEZER.--Scald the can, the cover, and the dasher of the freezer; cool it before the mixture that is to be frozen is placed in it. Adjust the can carefully in the bucket; put in the dasher; pour in the mixture, cover; adjust the crank. Crush the ice for freezing by placing it in a strong bag and pounding it with a wooden mallet. Mix the ice with rock salt in the proportion given below. Then pour the ice and salt mixture around the can of the freezer. The ice and salt mixture should be higher around the can than the level of the mixture inside.
For _freezing_ ice creams and most ices use _three_ parts of cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt. If ice of coarse grain is desired, use a greater quantity of salt. The less salt in
proportion to ice used, the finer the grain; the process of freezing, however, takes place very slowly when little salt is used.
For mixtures which are frozen by merely packing in ice and salt but are not stirred, such as mousse or parfait, use _two_ parts of cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt.
For packing frozen mixtures after freezing, use _four_ parts of cracked ice to _one_ of rock salt.
FREEZING.--If a dessert of fine texture is desired, turn the crank slowly and steadily until the mixture is rather stiff, then turn more rapidly. In making water ices, it is considered advisable by some to turn the crank steadily for 5 minutes, then allow to stand 5 minutes, turn again 5 minutes, and continue until freezing is completed. Do not draw off the salt water while freezing the mixture, unless the salt water stands so high that there is danger of its getting into the can.
When the mixture is frozen, remove the ice and salt around the top of the can; wipe the cover and top; uncover; and remove the dasher. Then stir the frozen mixture thoroughly; place thin paper or paraffin paper over the can; cover; place a cork in the hole of the cover. Drain off all the water which has collected in freezing; repack the freezer with ice and salt mixture in the proportion given above; cover with carpet, blanket, or newspapers; and allow to stand in a cold place several hours.
FRUIT ICE
4 cupfuls water 2 3/4 cupfuls sugar 3 oranges 3 lemons 3 bananas 1/4 teaspoonful salt
Make a sirup of the sugar and water, and then cool it. Extract the juice from the lemons and oranges; crush the peeled and scraped bananas with a wooden potato masher. Mix the fruits and salt immediately with the sirup. Freeze _at once_. When frozen, remove the dasher and repack as directed above.
A less expensive but more mildly flavored ice may be prepared by using 3 pints of water (instead of 4 cupfuls). When the greater quantity of water is used, 3 1/4 cupfuls (instead of 2 3/4 cupfuls) of sugar should be used.
These recipes for Fruit Ice are modifications of the popular recipe termed "Five Threes."
QUESTIONS
Explain why it is necessary to scald the can, cover, and dasher of an ice cream freezer (see _Care of Milk_).
What harm sometimes results when an ice cream freezer has been carelessly prepared?
Why should not the salt water be drawn from the freezer during freezing (see Experiment 79)?
What is the purpose of placing paper over the can when packing the frozen mixture?
What is the purpose of covering the packed freezer with carpet, blanket, or newspapers (see _The Principle of Fireless Cookery_)?
Why is it well to tie heavy paper around an _outside metal_ bucket of a freezer?
Why should "Fruit Ice" mixture be frozen _at once_ after preparing the fruit?
Heat aids chemical action. Can you explain why acid mixtures are not acted upon by the metal and consequently discolored when _frozen_ in a tin or iron can?
LESSON CLXI
FROZEN CREAMS
Frozen desserts consist of:
1. CREAM MIXTURES:
(_a_) _Plain Ice Cream_.--Cream, sugar, and flavoring. This is sometimes called Philadelphia Ice Cream.
(_b_) _French Ice Cream_.--Custard, cream, and flavoring. On the continent, this frozen mixture is called Neapolitan Ice Cream. In this country, three kinds of frozen mixtures served together make up what is termed Neapolitan Ice Cream.
(_c_) _Mousse_.--Whipped cream, folded into various sweetened and flavored mixtures, placed in a mold, and packed in ice and salt, but not beaten.
2. WATER MIXTURES:
(_a_) _Water Ice._--Fruit juice, water, and sugar.
(_b_) _Sherbet._--Water ice with the addition of dissolved gelatine or beaten whites of eggs.
(_c_) _Frappe._--Water ice of coarse texture.
(_d_) _Granite._--Water ice to which fruit is added after freezing.
3. FROZEN PUDDINGS:
Various sweet mixtures.
METHOD OF MIXING FROZEN FOODS.--The sugar of a frozen dessert should always be dissolved. To accomplish this a sirup should be made of the sugar and water (see Experiment 11). For mixtures that contain no eggs, but in which cream or milk is used, the cream or milk may be scalded, and the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid. If eggs are used to thicken ice cream, they should be combined with the sugar and cream and cooked as for a soft custard.
In sherbets, whites of eggs are often used. They are usually beaten stiff, and added uncooked to the mixture. If fruit juice is to be used with milk or cream, the latter should be chilled before adding the fruit. Fruits that are to be frozen with the other ingredients should be crushed thoroughly. Small fruits, or large fruits cut in pieces, are
sometimes added to a dessert after it is frozen, thereby preventing the fruit from freezing and becoming hard. All frozen mixtures should stand several hours before serving, in order to ripen.
PLAIN ICE CREAM
1 quart cream 3/4 cupful sugar 1 tablespoonful vanilla
Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods._
CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM
1 quart cream 1 cupful sugar 2 ounces chocolate 1/3 cupful boiling water Salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla
Scald the cream; add the sugar to it. Prepare the chocolate in the usual way, by cooking it in the boiling water until a smooth paste is formed (see _Chocolate_). Add the chocolate mixture to the hot cream. Cool, add salt and vanilla, and freeze.
FRENCH ICE CREAM
1 quart cream 1 pint milk 3 egg yolks Salt 1 cupful sugar 1 tablespoonful vanilla
Prepare as directed in _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_.
FRUIT ICE CREAM
2 cupfuls fruit juice, _or_ 3 cupfuls crushed fruit 1 quart cream 2 cupfuls sugar
Prepare and freeze according to the _Method of Mixing Frozen Foods_.
For Frozen Fruit or Water Ice, use water instead of cream.
The flavor of most fruits is improved by adding 2 tablespoonfuls of lemon juice to the water mixture.
QUESTIONS
For Fruit Ice Cream, why is it necessary to chill the cream before adding the fruit juice or crushed fruit (see Experiment 61)?
Why is it necessary to crush the fruit for frozen fruit mixture?
How much sugar would be required to sweeten one and one half quarts of custard, according to the recipe for Soft Custard? Compare this with the quantity of sugar used for French Ice Cream. How do extremely cold beverages affect the sense of taste? From this, account for the difference in the quantity of sugar used in frozen and in cold desserts. Also compare the quantity of sugar and vanilla used in Chocolate Ice Cream and Chocolate Beverage. Account for the difference.
Approximately how much ice is required to freeze and pack one quart of Ice Cream? What is the cost of ice per hundred pounds?
How many persons does one quart of ice cream serve?
RELATED WORK
LESSON CLXII
DIET FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
SELECTION OF FOOD FOR CHILDREN (2 to 12 years).--Although solid food is included in the diet of a child after the first year, the baby is by no means ready for the food of adults. Childhood differs essentially from maturity in that it is a period of growth. In proportion to weight a child is much more active than an adult. A child has not the reserve power of a grown-up person. His organs of digestion and assimilation are delicate. Because the activities and needs of the child differ greatly from those of the adult, diet suitable for the adult is not adapted to the child. A consideration of foods for young children follows:
(1) _Milk_.--Since milk is the food provided for young animals, it should be used generously all through childhood. The nutritive value of milk is high in proportion to the effort required to digest and assimilate it. The average child with good digestion should take from one and one half pints to one quart daily until the tenth year. In this amount is included not only the milk that is used as a beverage, but the milk served with cereals and vegetables and that used in soups, custards, blanc mange, rice and bread puddings, and other easily digested desserts.