Chapter 23

It has been found that the following proportion of cream of tartar and baking soda is effective in leavening: 1 1/4 _teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with _1/2_ teaspoonful of baking soda._ These quantities of materials are sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour. 1 1/2 _teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar with _2/3_ teaspoonful of baking soda are required to leaven 1 cupful coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat._

In determining the quantity of cream of tartar and baking soda to use with mixtures containing sour milk or other acid food, note the quantity of flour (or other cereal) in the recipe. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the total quantity of baking soda, which (with the necessary "acid" material) will leaven the flour. Then determine how much of the baking soda will be neutralized by the sour milk or other "acid" food. Assuming that l-1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar are needed to neutralize 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, use enough cream of tartar to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda. For example, if a recipe calls for (among other ingredients) 2 cupfuls flour and 1 cupful of sour milk, 1 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary "acid" material) will be needed to leaven the flour. Since 1 cupful of sour milk will neutralize only 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda, enough cream of tartar (_i.e._ 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls) will be needed to neutralize the remainder of the baking soda.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS FOR STEAMED QUICK BREAD MIXTURES.--A quick bread mixture that is to be steamed should be placed in a covered utensil. If the mold or the can used for steaming has no cover, an oiled paper should be tied over the top. As with all quick breads, the molds for steamed mixtures should be oiled. If the quick bread is a pour batter, the mold should be oiled and then sprinkled with flour. It should never be filled more than two thirds full.

A steamer placed over boiling water may be used for the steaming; or a kettle of boiling water containing a rack may be used. If the latter device is employed, the boiling water in the kettle should come halfway to the top of the molds. As the water evaporates, add more _boiling_ water. Less time is required in the steaming, if the mold is placed directly in the water.

At least one hour is required for steaming breads. The longer brown bread is steamed, the darker it becomes. A mixture in an earthen mold requires more time than does one in a tin or granite mold (see Experiment 46).

PLAIN BROWN BREAD

2 cupfuls graham flour 2/3 cupful white flour 3/4 cupful brown sugar 2/3 teaspoonful salt 1 2/3 teaspoonfuls baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar 2 cupfuls sour milk

Mix all dry ingredients thoroughly. Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into an oiled bread pan, and bake in the oven from 50 to 60 minutes; or fill one-pound baking powder cans (which have been oiled) two thirds full, and steam at least 4 hours. If the bread is steamed, remove it (after steaming) from the molds and dry in the oven for a few minutes.

BOSTON BROWN BREAD

1/4 cupful sugar 1 cupful corn-meal 2 cupfuls graham flour 3/4 teaspoonful salt 2 teaspoonfuls baking soda 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar 2 cupfuls sour milk 1/2 cupful molasses

Mix the dry ingredients (except the sugar) thoroughly. Turn the molasses, sugar, and sour milk into a mixing bowl. Add the dry ingredients; mix well. Turn at once into oiled molds, and steam at least 4 hours. Remove from the molds, and dry in the oven for a few minutes.

Rye meal or bread crumbs may be substituted for 1 cupful of graham flour.

If dried bread crumbs are used, moisten them with a little cold water before adding to the other ingredients.

1 cupful of raisins may also be added to the ingredients of the above recipe. If raisins are used, cut them in two and sprinkle flour over them.

BUTTER BALLS

Cut firm butter into half-ounce pieces and place in a pan of ice water. Scrub the butter paddles; place in boiling water for 10 minutes; and then in the pan of ice water until chilled. Place a piece of butter on one of the paddles and hold the paddle stationary. Shape the butter with the other butter paddle, moving it in a circular direction. Hold the paddle over the ice water while shaping. Place the butter balls in a cool place.

QUESTIONS

What gas is formed in these mixtures to leaven them? By what means is the gas formed in each mixture?

How much baking soda and cream of tartar should be used in a recipe containing 2 cupfuls of flour, 1 cupful of sour milk, and 1/2 cupful molasses?

Account for the quantity of baking soda used in each of the Brown Bread recipes.

Give two reasons why the paper used to cover a steamed quick bread mixture should be oiled. Why are molds for steamed mixtures filled only two thirds full?

Why should _boiling_ water be used to replenish the water in steaming kettle? Why is a longer time required for steaming than for baking quick bread mixtures?

Why should butter paddles be cleaned with a brush rather than with a cloth?

What is the purpose of placing butter paddles in boiling water before using?

Why hold the paddles over ice water while shaping the butter balls?

LESSON CXV

FORMULATING RECIPES--WAFFLES

LEAVENING FORMULAS.--A practical housekeeper needs to be able to formulate fundamental recipes. In preparing quick bread recipes, she should know the required consistency of flour mixtures, _i.e._ the approximate proportion of moisture and flour for each bread; and the proportion of leavening, seasoning, and "shortening" (fat) materials to use with flour.

In previous lessons, general statements have been made concerning the quantity of leavening materials to use under various conditions. The following is the approximate amount of leavening material to be used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:

BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK

1/2 teaspoonful baking soda to 1 cupful of sour milk

BAKING SODA AND MOLASSES [Footnote 84: See footnote 80.]

1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful molasses

FLOUR AND BAKING POWDER

2 teaspoonfuls baking powder to 1 cupful of flour when no eggs are used.

When eggs are used, reduce the entire quantity of baking powder by 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.

COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, AND BAKING POWDER

2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cupful of coarse flour or meal.

FLOUR, CREAM OF TARTAR, AND BAKING SODA

1 1/4 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.

COARSE WHEAT FLOUR, OR FLOUR (OR MEAL) OTHER THAN WHEAT, CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA

1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar and 2/3 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of flour.

Examine a number of recipes previously given, and note the quantity of salt and fat used with 1 cupful of flour.

In general, the following quantities of salt and fat are used for quick breads that contain little or no sugar:

FLOUR AND SALT

1/4 teaspoonful of salt to 1 cupful of flour

FLOUR AND FAT

1 tablespoonful of fat to 1 cupful of flour

While these data are helpful in formulating recipes, the pupil should remember that they are all approximate and for plain breads only. When recipes are modified by the addition of a cereal, a fruit, or a flavoring material, some of the quantities will need to be changed.

WAFFLES

2 cupfuls flour 3 to 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 to 2 eggs 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix according to the directions for Plain Griddle Cakes. The quantity of baking powder depends upon the number of eggs. The greater quantity should be used with one egg. Before using the waffle irons, they should be heated slowly on both sides and oiled thoroughly. Oleomargarine, oil, or lard may be used for this purpose.

Pour the batter quickly into the hot irons, close the irons at once, and brown the waffles on both sides. Serve with sirup or gravy.

QUESTIONS

Write a recipe for waffles, using sweet milk and baking powder and 3 eggs.

Write two recipes for waffles, using sour milk and soda (with additional leavening, if necessary) and 1 egg in the one, and 2 eggs in the other.

How many waffles does the given recipe make?

RELATED WORK

LESSON CXVI

MEASUREMENT OF THE FUEL VALUE OF FOODS

HOW FOOD IS ASSIMILATED.--The uses of the foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, protein, ash, water, and vitamines,--were given. It was stated that these foodstuffs either (_a_) "burned" (_i.e._ united with oxygen) and produced energy, (_b_) built the body, or (_c_) aided in regulating body processes.

All parts of the body are composed of microscopic cells. By the process of digestion the foodstuffs are made entirely soluble (see _Solution and Digestion_); they are then further altered, _i.e._ split to their end products and absorbed through the walls of the alimentary canal. The blood carries the digestion products to all parts of the body. The blood also carries oxygen,--which has been breathed into the body from the air,--to all parts of the body. The body cells then select the foodstuffs that they need to carry on their work. Some cells pick out the fuel materials--carbohydrates, fat, or protein--and oxygen. Fuel foods when oxidized, produce energy. Other body cells select some of the body builders--protein or ash--and use these for building or repairing tissue. The cells which build bone choose ash and the other materials needed for building bones; the cells which build muscle choose protein and the other materials needed for building muscle.

Little is known regarding the use of vitamines by the body cells, other than that they are indispensable for the growth and maintenance of the body.

HOW ENERGY OR FUEL VALUE IS MEASURED.--It was stated that the human body could be compared to an automobile, _i.e._ the "burning" of the fuel foods in the body produced the ability to do work. The quantity of energy that fuel food is capable of giving off is termed the _fuel value_ of that food. Energy has been defined as the ability to do work. Since heat is energy, the fuel value of foods shows, in part, [Footnote 85: Although ash, water, and vitamines nourish the body, it is impossible to measure their nutritive value in terms of fuel value. Fuel value expresses the nutritive value only of the combustible foodstuffs,--carbohydrates, fats, and protein. However, according to Sherman, "the most conspicuous nutritive requirement is that of energy for the work of the body." Hence, the fuel value of a food is often spoken of as its nutritive value (see "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 138).] their nutritive value. _If the quantity of heat that is produced by burning a food is measured, the measurement indicates the quantity of energy that the food is capable of giving to the body._

Heat cannot be measured by weight or length, but by the change in temperature which it produces in a given weight of a certain material. The heat unit is not a pound or yard, but a _Calorie_, or a definite quantity of heat, which, when applied to materials, will produce change of temperature in those materials. If the temperature of one pound [Footnote 86: NOTE TO THE TEACHER--The avoirdupois system of measurement and the Fahrenheit scale of temperature are used in this text. It is believed by the author that less than ten per cent of all pupils taking this course will enter college. Hence, the use of the measurements that are more in keeping with the pupils' practical needs. For the small minority who will enter college, a thorough drill in the metric system is urged. The following formula gives the necessary information for changing from the Fahreheit to the Centigrade scale: Subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9.] of water is 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and it is desired to increase the temperature of that water to 74 degrees Fahrenheit, a certain quantity of heat will have to be applied. It has been found that the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through any four degrees of the Fahrenheit scale is practically the same, _i.e._ the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 32 degrees to 36 degrees F. is about the same as the quantity of heat that must be applied to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60 degrees to 64 degrees F. The unit of measurement of heat is taken as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through about 4 degrees F.

The Calorie, [Footnote 87: _I.e._ greater Calorie, distinguished from the lesser calorie by the capital C.] used for food calculation, _is approximately the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound (pint) of water through_ 4 degrees F. If one pint of water were placed over a lighted burner and heated until it increased four degrees in temperature, approximately one Calorie of heat would have been applied to the water (see Figure 82).

HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--Scientists have worked with care to obtain accurate data for the measurement of the heat produced by foods burning in the body. The data accepted to-day differ from those given by Rubner some years ago. [Footnote 88: See "Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition," Second Edition, by Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., p. 143, "Physiological Fuel Values."]

1 gram protein yields 4 Calories 1 gram fat yields 9 Calories 1 gram carbohydrate yields 4 Calories Expressing grams approximately in ounces, these data become: 1 ounce of protein yields 113 Calories 1 ounce of fat yields 255 Calories 1 ounce of carbohydrate yields 113 Calories

In order to find the fuel value of foods, it is necessary to know their composition. For such data _United States Department of Agriculture_ Bulletin No. 28 is a valuable source.

_Flour_.--The fuel content of flour is (see _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 58, All Analyses Average):

10.6 per cent protein; 1.1 per cent fat; 76.3 per cent carbohydrates. Then, 1 ounce of flour contains, 0.106 ounce of protein; 0.011 ounce of fat; 0.763 ounce carbohydrates.

The protein in one ounce of flour yields (113 x 0106 =) 11.97 Calories.

The fat in one ounce of flour yields (255 x 0.011 =) 2.80 Calories. The carbohydrates in one ounce of flour yield (113 x 0.763 =) 86.21 Calories.

Total Calories furnished by 1 ounce of flour are (11.97 + 2.80 + 86.21 =) 100.98.

_Butter_.--The fuel content of butter is (see _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 54):

1 per cent protein; 85 per cent fat; no carbohydrates.

1 ounce of butter contains 0.01 ounce of protein, 0.85 ounce of fat, and no carbohydrates.

The protein in one ounce of butter yields (0.01 x 113 =) 1.13 Calories.

The fat in one ounce of butter yields (0.85 x 255 =) 216.75 Calories.

Number of total Calories furnished by one ounce of butter is (1.13+216.75=) 217.88.

_Sugar_.--The fuel content of sugar is (see _United States Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, p. 65) no per cent protein; no per cent fat; 100 per cent carbohydrates.

1 ounce of sugar contains no protein, no fat, and 1 ounce carbohydrates. 1 ounce sugar yields (113 x 1 =) 113 Calories.

HOW THE WEIGHT OF FOOD MATERIALS PRODUCING 100 CALORIES IS MEASURED.--For practical work in computing the fuel value of foods, it has been found more convenient to reduce all data to terms which express equal fuel value instead of equal weight as in the foregoing paragraph. One hundred Calories is the unit chosen. The weight of a food which, when "burned" in the body, will produce one hundred Calories is the desired data. This weight is termed a _standard portion_ or a _100-Calorie portion_ (see Figures 83 and 84).

From the previous work, it is a simple matter to compute in ounces the quantity of food materials which will yield 100 Calories.

If 1 ounce of flour yields 100.98 Calories and _x_ represents the number of ounces of flour which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/100.98 or _x_=0.99, the number of ounces of flour which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of flour.

If 1 ounce of butter yields 217.88 Calories and _x_ represents the number of ounces of butter which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/217.88 or _x_=0.45, the number of ounces of butter which yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of butter.

If 1 ounce of sugar yields 113 Calories and x represents the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, then _x_/1=100/113 or _x_=0.88, the number of ounces of sugar which will yield 100 Calories, _i.e._ a 100-Calorie portion of sugar.

HOW THE FUEL VALUE OF A COMBINATION OF FOOD MATERIAL IS MEASURED.--It is possible to compute the fuel value of a food that is made up of several food materials. To do this one must know or find:

(_a_) Recipe for food. (_b_) Weight and measure of combustible food materials. (_c_) Number of Calories yielded by one ounce of each of the combustible foodstuffs.

The recipe for one loaf of bread is:

1 cupful water 1 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful sugar 3 1/2 cupfuls flour 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1/4 cake compressed yeast 1/4 cupful water

By weighing and measuring one finds:

1 pound sugar measures 2 cupfuls 1 pound butter measures 2 cupfuls 1 pound flour measures 4 cupfuls

Then,

1 teaspoonful sugar weighs 0.16 ounce 1/3 tablespoonful butter weighs 0.25 ounce 3 1/2 cupfuls flour weigh 14.0 ounces

(From data of _How the Fuel Value of a Food Material is Measured_.)

1 teaspoonful sugar yields (113 x 0.16 =) 18.08 Calories 1/2 tablespoonful butter yields (217.88 x 0.25 =) 54.47 Calories 3 1/2 cupfuls flour yield (100.98 x 14 =) 1413.72 Calories 1 loaf of bread yields (18.08 + 54.47 + 1413.72 =) 1486.27 Calories

For the practical method of calculating diet (which is more fully treated in Lesson CXXXI), it is convenient to have the 100-Calorie portion of a recipe, or a "made" food.

The 100-Calorie portion of bread is estimated from the result above in the following manner:

Since 1486.27 Calories are yielded by one loaf of homemade bread, then 100 Calories are yielded by (100/1486.27 =) .06 or 6 per cent of a loaf of homemade bread; hence, 1/16 (6 ) or 1 slice of homemade bread yields 100 Calories.

QUESTIONS

Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of milk.

Find the number of Calories produced by one ounce of egg.

Weigh out 100-Calorie portions of flour, butter, and sugar.

Measure these quantities, using a cup for the flour, a tablespoon for the butter, and a teaspoon for the sugar.

Compute 100-Calorie portions of milk and the edible portion of eggs, then weigh these portions.

Measure this portion of milk in a cup. How many eggs make a standard portion?

Why are water, salt, and yeast not considered when the fuel value is computed?

Compute the fuel value of 1 pint of Soft Custard.

Find the 100-Calorie portion of Soft Custard.

NOTE.--Forms A and B given on the following pages will be found convenient in recording the results of these calculations.

LESSON CXVII

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A DINNER

Plan a plain dinner. [Footnote 89: See footnote 72.] Use seasonable foods. Follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV. Plan the menu so that the cost of the materials used does not exceed 25 cents per person. Analyze the menu and see that it meets the requirements stated in Lesson CV.

Cook and serve the dinner. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.

LESSON CXVIII

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Cereal Griddle Cakes Fruit Sirup Coffee

_or_

Butterscotch Apples Gingerbread Tea

See Lesson XIV regarding suggestions for the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CXIX

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 90: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare a quick bread such as Popovers or Gingerbread in your home at least once a week.

If griddle cakes are served in your home, prepare cakes at least once a week.

Calculate the cost of these breads.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To use various leavens in quick breads. To compare results secured by using sweet milk or water with baking powder, and sour milk with baking soda, or sour milk with baking soda and baking powder.

(2) To use different liquids in Gingerbread, viz., sour milk, water, sweet milk. To compare results obtained by the use of each.

DIVISION ELEVEN

QUICK BREADS: DROP BATTERS

LESSON CXX

FINE AND COARSE FLOURS--MUFFINS

DIFFERENCES IN WHEAT FLOURS.--Examine white flour, whole wheat flour, and graham flour. Notice the difference in color, grittiness, and quantity of bran (cellulose).

As has been mentioned before, all cereals or grains have an outer hard covering of cellulose (see _Cellulose_). Cereals also contain a germ from which the young plant springs. In the preparation of fine flours, the germ and most of the cellulose covering are removed. Whole wheat (erroneously named) has part of the outer covering removed. Graham [Footnote 91: Graham flour is so called because Dr. Sylvester Graham advocated the use of the entire grain and devised a method of preparing it.] flour, properly made, contains all the materials of the wheat grain. The germ is rich in fat, protein, and ash. The outer part, called _bran_, contains more ash, fat, and protein than does the center of the grain. Hence with the removal of the germ and bran, much of the protein and ash is lost (see Figure 85). However, much graham flour is a mixture of inferior flour and bran.

THE MILLING OF FLOUR.--In the milling of fine flour, the wheat kernels are passed through a series of rollers and sifters that crush the wheat and separate the bran from the other materials. The greater the number of times the flour is subjected to the rolling and sifting process, the more thoroughly are the parts of the grain separated and the more finely are they crushed. When the separation is complete, the resulting fine flour consists almost entirely of the center of the crushed grains (called _middlings_). Flour made with fewer rollings and siftings contains more of the outer coats. In general, the term _patent_ is applied to flour made from the middlings. The flour containing more of the outer coats is called _baker's_ or family flour. Patent flour contains more starch than does baker's flour while baker's flour contains more protein than does patent flour. The terms _patent_ and _baker's_ vary in meaning, however, in different localities.

VALUE OF COARSE FLOUR.--Analyses show that graham and whole wheat flours contain more protein and ash than fine white flour. So it would seem that breads made from these coarser flours furnish more body-building material. But investigations have shown that the protein contained in the coarse flours is not entirely assimilated and that about the same quantity of protein is digested and absorbed from fine as from coarse flours.