Chapter 22

Baking temperatures have been classified as follows: [Footnote 76: From Technical Education Bulletin, No. 22, "Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery Processes," by May B. Van Arsdale, Teachers College, Columbia University.]

1. Slow oven (250 degrees to 350 degrees F.) for custards and meringues.

2. Moderate oven (350 degrees to 400 degrees F.) for bread, gingerbread, plain cake, [Footnote 77: The lower temperature should be used for loaf cakes and the higher temperature for layer cakes.] all molasses mixtures.

3. Hot oven (400 degrees to 450 degrees F.) for Parkerhouse rolls, and Popovers. In baking Popovers, the oven should be cooled to moderate heat after the first ten minutes.

4. Very hot oven (450 degrees to 550 degrees F.) for pastry. After the first 6 minutes, the temperature should be lowered to "hot."

Oven temperatures may be estimated also as follows: (_a_) note the number of minutes required to change white paper, flour, or bread to a light brown or to a golden brown; (_b_) note the number of "counts" (one count per second) that the hand may be held in the oven.

POUR BATTER.--All breads may be divided into two classes: (_a_) Quick Breads and (_b_) Yeast Breads. The former are so named because a much shorter time is required in their preparation. Quick breads are divided into several classes, depending upon the proportion of flour and moisture in the batter. A _pour batter_ is the thinnest quick bread mixture. It usually contains about equal parts of flour and moisture. A definite proportion cannot be stated, since the thickening quality of different flours varies, and the wetting quality of different moist materials varies. Many pour batters contain a little more flour than moisture. Popover mixture is. a typical pour batter.

POPOVERS

1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 cupful milk 1 cupful flour 1/3 teaspoonful fat (melted)

Oil iron gem pans; place them in the oven, heat until very hot. Put all the Popover ingredients in a mixing bowl, and beat the mixture with a Dover egg beater. Pour it into the hot pans and bake 35 to 45 minutes in a hot oven, at 425 degrees F. Earthen cups placed in a dripping pan may be used instead of iron pans.

Popovers may be served hot as a bread, for breakfast or luncheon; or may be used as a dessert with custard or lemon filling or sauce. Fruit makes a pleasing addition to Popovers. Before baking, drop a piece of apple, peach, or other fruit, into the batter in each cup.

QUESTIONS

What change, other than moistening the flour, takes place in the milk that helps to lighten the Popovers?

What changes take place in the eggs and in the air inclosed in them when they are heated quickly?

What is the purpose of beating the Popover mixture thoroughly? How many Popovers will the given recipe make?

LESSON CX

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA AND SOUR MILK: SPIDER CORN BREAD

Besides the air that is beaten into the eggs and into the combined ingredients of quick bread mixtures, a gas--carbon dioxide--is often introduced into such mixtures. To find how this gas may be formed, try the following:

EXPERIMENT 67: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON SOUR MILK.--Place a teaspoonful of sour milk in a test tube and add a pinch of baking soda. Do you notice any change in the ingredients? Apply heat to the contents of the tube. What kind of material (solid, liquid, or gas) is indicated by the bubbling (see Experiment 7)? What does this experiment teach with regard to the use of baking soda and sour milk, for lightening a mixture?

EXPERIMENT 68: CHEMICAL CHANGE.--Measure 1/4 cupful of thick sour milk. [Footnote 78: The amount of acid in sour milk varies slightly.] Dip the end of a piece of blue litmus paper in it. What change in color takes place in the paper? When blue litmus changes to pink, an _acid_ is present. The sour milk therefore contains acid. Measure 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda. Mix this with a little water. Test with pink litmus paper. When pink litmus paper changes to blue, an _alkaline_ substance is present. Baking soda is therefore alkaline in reaction.

Pour the milk into a saucepan, add about 3/4 of the soda mixture, stir and heat until effervescence (bubbling) has ceased. Test the mixture in the saucepan with blue litmus paper. If the blue litmus paper changes color, carefully add a little more of the soda solution. Test with litmus again. If there is still a change in color, add soda solution until the litmus does not change. Then test with pink litmus. When neither pink nor blue litmus paper changes color a _neutral_ substance is present, i.e. a substance neither acid nor alkaline.

When this occurs, the mixture in the pan is no longer acid in reaction. Neither sour milk nor baking soda exists in the pan. A _chemical change_ has taken place. From the union of sour milk and soda, entirely different materials are formed; one is the neutral substance in the pan; another is the carbon dioxide gas which has escaped, and the third is water. When an acid and an alkaline material are mixed, a chemical change always occurs. Chemical changes are constantly taking place when certain food mixtures are cooked and digested.

EXPERIMENT 69: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH SOUR MILK.--To the contents of the saucepan of Experiment 68, add 1/8 teaspoonful more of baking soda. Stir, heat, and test with pink litmus. What is the reaction-- acid or alkaline? Has the last quantity of soda been neutralized as was the first quantity? Explain.

If more baking soda than is necessary to neutralize the acid of the sour milk is used, some _unneutralized_ soda will remain in the mixture. This is undesirable, since soda has a "bitter taste." An excessive quantity of unneutralized soda also discolors the mixture.

Experiments 68 and 69 indicate that the _approximate_ proportion of baking soda to sour milk is: _1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda to 1 cupful of thick sour milk._

The following "equations" indicate the importance of using the proper amount of baking soda to neutralize the acid materials:

1 cupful of sour milk + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> [Footnote 79: The plus sign is read "with"; the arrow is read "yields."] water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material.

1 cupful of sour milk + 1 teaspoonful of baking soda --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral material + unneutralized "soda."

SPIDER CORN BREAD

3/4 cupful corn-meal 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda 1/4 cupful flour 1 egg 1 tablespoonful sugar 1 cupful sour milk 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 tablespoonful butter or substitute

Mix the dry ingredients. In a mixing bowl, beat an egg, add the sour milk, then the dry ingredients. Beat the mixtures until the ingredients are well blended.

Melt the butter or substitute in a hot "spider" or frying pan. Pour the corn-meal mixture into it. Bake in a hot oven until sufficiently baked, usually about 20 minutes (see tests below). Serve hot.

TESTS FOR SUFFICIENT BAKING OF QUICK BREAD.--Quick Bread is usually sufficiently baked: (_a_) when it is a golden brown in color; (_b_) when the mixture shrinks from the pan; (_c_) when the crust springs back into place, if pressed gently with the fingers; or (_d_) when no batter or dough clings to a wire skewer or knitting needle (see Figure 1) that has been inserted. Usually it is not necessary to apply this last test, unless the quick bread is baked in a loaf or in a very thick layer.

QUESTIONS

Mention the materials used in Spider Corn Bread to make it light. Explain their action.

Explain why satisfactory results could not be obtained by using 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking soda in this Spider Corn Bread recipe.

What is the price per half-pound of baking soda?

How many persons does this Spider Corn Bread recipe serve?

LESSON CXI

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND MOLASSES: GINGERBREAD

EXPERIMENT 70: ACTION OF BAKING SODA ON MOLASSES.--Place a teaspoonful of baking molasses in a test tube and dilute with a little water. Test it with litmus paper. What is its reaction? Add a pinch of baking soda. Heat. What does effervescence indicate? What do we call the gas formed by the action of the baking soda and a substance having an acid reaction? Explain how baking soda and molasses could be used to lighten a quick bread.

EXPERIMENT 71: QUANTITY OF BAKING SODA TO USE WITH MOLASSES.--Carefully measure 1/8 cupful of molasses. [Footnote 80: The acidity of molasses may be due to fermentation or to the preservatives used in many brands. Its intensity varies.] Dilute it with much water. Carefully measure 1/16 teaspoonful of baking soda and mix it with water. Add about 3/4 of the soda mixture to the molasses solution. Stir and heat. Test with blue litmus. If it changes color, keep adding the soda mixture, until the litmus paper does not change, as in Experiment 68. When neither blue nor pink litmus paper changes color, what kind of substance,--acid, alkaline, or neutral,--is present? What change has taken place in the materials placed in the saucepan?

This experiment shows that the _approximate_ proportion of baking soda to molasses is:

1/2 _teaspoonful of baking soda to_ 1 _cupful of molasses_.

This "equation" expresses the chemical change in the experiment:

1 cupful molasses + 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda --> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.

GINGERBREAD

2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda 1 teaspoonful cinnamon 2 teaspoonfuls ginger 1/8 teaspoonful cloves 1 egg 1 cupful thick sour milk 1/2 cupful molasses 1/2 cupful sugar 2 to 4 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix all the dry ingredients except the sugar. Beat the egg in a mixing bowl. Add the sour milk, molasses, and sugar. If solid fat is used, melt it. Add the fat to the molasses mixture. Through a sifter, add the dry ingredients to other materials. Beat thoroughly and turn at once into a shallow oiled pan. Bake in a moderate oven (375 degrees F. to 400 degrees F.) 20 minutes or longer (see _Tests for Sufficient Baking of Quick Bread_)

_Gingerbread without Eggs_ may be made. Omit the egg from the recipe above. To the dry ingredients, add 1 teaspoonful of baking powder.

_Water Gingerbread_ may be made by substituting 7/8 cupful cold water for the sour milk, and using 1/4 teaspoonful baking soda (instead of 3/4 teaspoonful) and adding 3 teaspoonfuls of baking powder.

QUESTIONS

Mention the leavening materials used in this Gingerbread, and explain their action.

What is the price per quart of molasses?

How many persons does this recipe serve?

LESSON CXII

LEAVENING WITH BAKING POWDER: GRIDDLE CAKES

EXPERIMENT 72: EFFECT OF COLD WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.--Test a bit of cream of tartar with moistened litmus paper. Is it acid or alkaline in reaction?

Put 1/8 teaspoonful of baking soda and twice the quantity of cream of tartar in a dry test tube. Does any change take place? Add about 1 teaspoonful of cold water to the mixture and examine. What change takes place? What substance is being formed?

EXPERIMENT 73: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON A MIXTURE OF CREAM OF TARTAR AND BAKING SODA.--Repeat Experiment 72, using hot water instead of cold with the baking soda and cream of tartar. Which causes greater effervescence,-- hot or cold water? Is it desirable to have more of the gas formed before or after the mixture is placed in the oven? What, then, should be the temperature (hot or cold) of liquids and other materials used in the quick bread mixtures?

EXPERIMENT 74: EFFECT OF HOT WATER ON BAKING POWDER.--Add about 1 teaspoonful of hot water to 1/4 teaspoonful of baking powder. Compare the effervescence with that of Experiment 73. From the comparison of Experiments 72 and 73, with Experiment 74, what two kinds of substances do you infer this baking powder contains?

(Save the contents of the tube for the following experiment.)

EXPERIMENT 75: STARCH IN BAKING POWDER.--Filter the contents of the tube used in Experiment 74 through filter paper (see Figure 30). Add a drop of tincture of iodine to the insoluble material left on the filter paper. What is the insoluble constituent of this baking powder?

COMPOSITION OF BAKING POWDER.--Baking powder consists of

(_a_) baking soda, (_b_) a substance having an acid reaction, (_c_) a starchy material.

The substance of acid reaction varies in different baking powders. Some powders in common use contain either cream of tartar, calcium or sodium acid phosphate, or alum [Footnote 81: Alums differ in composition. They are sulphates of various metals. The alum most commonly used in alum baking powder is sodium aluminium sulphate.] as the "acid" material. Certain baking powders contain a mixture of materials with acid reaction, such as cream of tartar with tartaric acid, and alum with calcium acid phosphate.

The starch is added to keep the other materials apart, and thus prevent the possible formation and consequent loss of carbon dioxide.

The trade name of a baking powder does not usually suggest its composition. But the latter is always stated on the label of the can.

EXPERIMENT 76: COMPARISON OF THE TIME OF ACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Put 1/2 cupful of water of the same temperature into each of 3 tumblers or glass measuring cups. To one tumbler add 1/2 teaspoonful of tartrate baking powder; to the second, the same quantity of phosphate baking powder; and to the third an equal quantity of alum (or alum and phosphate) baking powder. Stir each and note the length of time that chemical change occurs in each tumbler. Which type of baking powder reacts the longest time?

DIFFERENCE IN TYPES OF BAKING POWDERS.--Although there has been much discussion regarding the superiority of one type of baking powder over another, it is thought that one standard baking powder is as little harmful as another. But, as shown by Experiment 76, the action of certain types is slower than that of others, _i.e._ the formation of the gas continues for a longer time. Certain types of baking powders which react very quickly when moisture is added may react to some extent while still in the can and thus lose some of their effectiveness in leavening. It is well to buy those baking powders in such quantities so that a fresh can can be purchased often. The price of certain types of baking powders is much greater than that of others.

QUANTITY OF BAKING POWDER IN QUICK BREADS.--Since baking powder contains both acid and alkaline materials, the quantity of baking powder used in a quick bread is dependent not upon another leavening material, but upon the quantity of flour and eggs. _When no eggs are used, 2 tea-spoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of flour._ When eggs are added to a quick bread, the quantity of baking powder should be lessened 1/2 teaspoonful for each egg.

_Two and one half teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be used with 1 cupful of coarse wheat flour or flour or meal other than wheat._

SUGGESTIONS FOR PREPARING GRIDDLE CAKES.--The general rules for mixing quick breads apply also to griddle cakes. When the yolk and white of the egg are separated, the mixture will be somewhat lighter. Most housekeepers, however, beat the eggs together quickly, and find the result satisfactory.

The consistency of griddle cake batter is most important. As suggested in the recipe, the moisture should be added cautiously. Since the quantity of baking powder depends upon the amount of flour, it is better to change from a thick to a thinner batter by increasing the moisture, rather than to change from a thin to a thicker batter by increasing the flour. After mixing the batter, drop a small cake on the hot iron. The thickness as well as the grain of the browned cake depends largely upon the consistency of the batter. If too much moisture has been used, the cake is thin, "pasty," and coarse grained.

A griddle should be heated slowly, and should be hot when the cakes are mixed. If sufficient fat is used in the batter, it is not necessary to oil the griddle. The recipes for griddle cakes given in this book contain one and one half times the quantity of fat generally used in griddle cake batters. Hence oiling the griddle is unnecessary. It is well after each baking to wipe off the griddle with a cloth or paper.

Drop the batter by the spoonful (from the end of the spoon) on the hot griddle, brown on the under side thoroughly. When the cakes have risen, when the tops are full of bubbles, and when the edges are brown, the cakes should be turned and browned on the other side. Serve cakes at once after baking.

PLAIN GRIDDLE CAKES

2 cupfuls flour 1 egg 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 1/2 cupfuls milk 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Prepare according to the directions above. Add the milk cautiously. More or less (according to the absorbing property of the flour) than the given quantity may be required.

1/8 cupful of sugar or molasses may be added to the mixture. If desired, one more egg may be used in this recipe. Serve with maple or other sirup (see _Sirup_).

BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES

1 1/2 cupfuls bread crumbs 1 1/2 cupfuls hot milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 2 eggs 1/2 cupful flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder

Soak the bread in the hot milk until soft. Add the other ingredients in the order given.

1 cupful of cooked cereal may be used instead of bread crumbs. _Rice Griddle Cakes_ are especially pleasing.

QUESTIONS

Account for the quantity of baking powder used in each of these recipes.

What is the price per pound of cream of tartar? Of tartrate baking powder? Of phosphate baking powder? Of alum baking powder? Of alum-phosphate baking powder?

What would be the effect of exposing baking powder to moist air? How should baking powder be stored?

What kind of griddle cakes result when the batter is too thin? When too thick?

What indicates that the griddle is too hot? Too cool?

How should griddle cakes be served?

LESSON CXIII

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND BAKING POWDER: SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES

ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Some housekeepers maintain that a superior flavor and quality is given to quick bread by the use of sour milk. It has been found that most quick breads are sufficiently light and porous when made with sour milk and baking soda, provided they contain as much or almost as much sour milk as flour and provided they contain eggs. If _the quantity of sour milk is much less than that of flour_ and _no eggs are present_, it is often desirable to add leavening materials other than sour milk and baking soda.

From the results of Experiment 69 we know that an increased quantity of baking soda will not produce satisfactory results. Hence more carbon dioxide gas must be obtained by other means. Since baking powder consists of both baking soda and an "acid" material, it makes a desirable substance for additional leavening. A combination of baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder is therefore used for leavening some quick bread mixtures, especially those that contain only a small quantity of sour milk and no eggs. This involves a double reaction:

(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.

(_b_) Baking powder (moistened and heated) --> neutral material + carbon dioxide gas + water.

About 1/4 of baking powder is baking soda. Hence 1/4 teaspoonful of baking soda (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) is equivalent to 1 teaspoonful of baking powder in leavening. If 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder are used to leaven 1 cupful of flour, 1/2 _teaspoonful of baking soda_ (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) _should be used to leaven 1 cupful of flour_.

_Two thirds teaspoonful of baking soda_ (with the necessary quantity of "acid" material) _should be used to leaven 1 cupful of coarse flour or flour or meal_ other than wheat.

In determining the quantity of baking powder to use in materials leavened with sour milk and baking soda, note the quantity of baking soda and flour. Assuming that 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") or 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder leavens 1 cupful of flour, determine the amount of flour that the given quantity of baking soda (with "acid") will leaven and then use sufficient baking powder to leaven the remainder of the flour. For example, if a recipe states (among other ingredients) 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 cupful of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1 cupful of flour (_i.e._ 2 teaspoonfuls) should be used. Again, if a recipe states that 3/4 teaspoonful baking soda and 2 cupfuls of flour, the baking soda (with "acid") will leaven 1 1/2 cupfuls of flour. Hence baking powder sufficient to leaven 1/2 cupful flour (_i.e._ 1 teaspoonful) should be used.

SOUR MILK GRIDDLE CAKES (without eggs)

2 cupfuls flour 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Turn the sour milk into a mixing bowl. Melt the fat and add it to the sour milk. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the mixture. Mix thoroughly. If more moisture is needed, add water.

CORN-MEAL GRIDDLE CAKES

1 cupful corn-meal 2 cupfuls water 3 tablespoonfuls fat 1 cupful sour milk 1 cupful flour 1 teaspoonful salt 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda [Footnote 82: The 1/2 teaspoonful of baking soda (with "acid") is sufficient to leaven the 1 cupful of flour. Then 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder should be added, since 1 cupful of corn- meal is contained in the recipe (see _Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads_).] 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder [Footnote 83: See footnote 82] 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar

Add the corn-meal to the water, mix thoroughly, and cook 5 minutes. Add the fat. Cool. Then add the milk and dry ingredients. Mix thoroughly. Drop at once on a hot griddle.

FRUIT SIRUP

Cook fresh fruit, or dried fruit that has been soaked in water, in a generous quantity of water until it is very soft. Press through a strainer. If it is not of the consistency of catsup, add more hot water. Add from one eighth to one fourth cupful of sugar for each cupful of sirup, or "sweeten to taste." Serve on griddle cakes, or use as a sauce for Bread Pudding or Rice Pudding.

Fruit butters, marmalades, or jams may be diluted with water, heated, and used in the same way.

QUESTIONS

If an egg or two were added to griddle cakes made with sour milk, how should the recipe be changed? Give reasons for the change.

Explain the action of the leavening agents in Sour Milk Griddle Cakes (without eggs).

In a quick bread leavened with baking soda, sour milk, and baking powder, upon what ingredient does the quantity of baking soda depend? Upon what ingredients does the quantity of baking powder depend? Explain your answers.

What is the purpose of cooking the corn-meal before adding the other ingredients? Why should the cooked mixture be cooled before adding the other ingredients?

LESSON CXIV

LEAVENING WITH BAKING SODA, SOUR MILK, AND CREAM OF TARTAR: STEAMED BROWN BREADS

ADDITIONAL LEAVENING FOR SOUR MILK MIXTURES.--Instead of using prepared baking powder as additional leavening for sour milk mixtures (see previous lesson) cream of tartar with sour milk and baking soda may be used. Enough baking soda must be used, however, to neutralize both the sour milk and the cream of tartar. This involves a double reaction:

(_a_) Baking soda + sour milk --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral substance.

(_b_) Baking soda + cream of tartar --> water + carbon dioxide gas + a neutral substance.

If molasses is used with the sour milk and baking soda, a third reaction occurs:

(_c_) Baking soda + molasses --> water + carbon dioxide gas + neutral substance.