Chapter 21

Cut the fat from the meat, cut the meat into pieces. Put the fat and sliced onion in a frying pan. Brown the meat in the fat. Add the barley and water and let the mixture cook at simmering temperature for at least 1 1/2 hours. Pare the potatoes, cut them into quarters. Add the potatoes and celery leaves and cook the mixture at boiling temperature until the potatoes are tender. Serve hot.

(Adapted from _Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.)

TAMALE PIE

3/4 cupful corn-meal 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 3 cupfuls boiling water 1 onion 1 tablespoonful fat 1 pound chopped meat 2 cupfuls tomatoes Dash Cayenne pepper, _or_ 1 small chopped sweet pepper 1 1/4 teaspoonfuls salt

Make a mush by stirring the corn-meal and 1 1/2 teaspoons salt into boiling water. Cook in a double boiler or over water for 45 minutes. Brown the onion in the fat, add the chopped meat, and stir until the red color disappears. Add the tomato, pepper, and salt. Grease a baking-dish, put in a layer of corn-meal mush, add the seasoned meat, and cover with mush. Bake 30 minutes.

(Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.)

CREOLE STEW

1 pound lean beef or 1 medium fowl 1 tablespoonful fat 1/4 cupful chopped onion 1/2 cupful chopped sweet peppers 1 cupful boiling water 1/2 cupful rice 1 cupful carrots or okra (cut into small pieces) 2 cupfuls tomatoes 2 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt

Cut the meat into small pieces or cut the fowl into joints. In a frying pan melt the fat, add the onions, peppers, meat, or chicken. Brown for a few minutes.

Pour these materials into a casserole or kettle of the fireless cooker and add the other ingredients. If the casserole is used, cook at simmering temperature for 2 hours. If the stew is to be cooked in the fireless cooker, cook it directly over the flame for 1/2 hour and then place it in the fireless cooker from 2 to 3 hours. Serve hot.

With chicken and okra this is the famous Creole Chicken of the South.

(Adapted from _United States Department of Agriculture Leaflet_.)

QUESTIONS

Make a list of meat-extending dishes.

Make a list of foods suitable for the main food of one-dish meals.

How many persons will one pound of meat serve?

How many persons will the dishes of this lesson (each containing one pound of meat) serve?

Tell why the foods comprising these dishes are desirable food combinations.

RELATED WORK

LESSON CV

MENU-MAKING

REPRESENTATION OF ALL ESSENTIALS OF DIET.--All the foodstuffs or nutrients should be represented in the foods of a meal, or at least in the foods composing a day's diet. The meal, or the day's ration, should consist of:

Food rich in carbohydrates and fat, to supply energy to the body.

Food rich in protein [Footnote 70: Protein is not only a body-builder, but also a fuel. But since it should be used chiefly for body-building (see _Daily Carbohydrate and Fat Requirement_) its energy-giving power is not considered in meal planning.] and ash, to build the body.

Food in the form of ash and water, to regulate the processes of the body.

Food containing vitamines, to promote the health and growth of the body.

Food containing cellulose, to give bulk to diet.

Water is supplied to some extent with almost all the foods of a meal, but as mentioned previously, a generous quantity should be used as a beverage.

A consideration of the kinds of food to meet the different needs of the body follows:

A. _Food for Energy_.--Although both _starch_ and _sugar_ are carbohydrates which furnish energy to the body, this need of the body should be supplied for the most part by starch. The harmful effects of excessive sugar eating were mentioned previously.

A certain amount of _fat_ is needed for energy-giving. A meal containing fat "stays by" a person for a longer time than one devoid of foods rich in fat. This is because fat is more slowly digested than other foodstuffs. Hence a vigorous person leading an active outdoor life may feel much more comfortable when fat is included in his diet. On the other hand, those exercising little find that fat-rich foods distress them greatly, since they are too slowly digested. For many persons, the use of much fat is harmful. Since butter contains the fat-soluble vitamine, it is valuable not only for energy-giving, but for growth-promoting.

B. _Food for Body-building and Repairing_.--Both _protein_ and _ash_ are needed for body-building. The former foodstuff contains the element nitrogen,--one of the necessary elements for the growth and maintenance of the body.

Since there are several kinds of food containing protein, the question arises whether protein is best supplied by meat, eggs, milk, cheese, or vegetable protein foods. There are some who contend that meat is the least desirable source of protein food. The use of much meat may lead to the formation of an excess of uric acid which is eliminated by some persons with difficulty. It may also cause intestinal putrefaction.

Many find that by using meat once a day their health is normal. Others find that by using meat but several times a week a more desirable condition is maintained. Doubtless many people would find themselves much benefited by using less meat. If the quantity of meat eaten is greatly lessened, care should be taken that protein is supplied by other foods, such as eggs, legumes, cheese, and the various meat-substitute dishes. Care should also be taken to see that complete proteins are included in diet. If foods containing incomplete protein such as some of the legumes and cereals are used for body-building, they should be supplemented by foods rich in complete protein such as milk and eggs. If much meat is eaten, a generous quantity of water and of fresh vegetables and fruits should be used.

While all the _mineral materials_ found in the body [Footnote 71: The ash constituents existing in the body in largest quantity are:

Sulphur Chlorine Calcium Iron Sodium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus

] are necessary for its growth and maintenance, calcium, phosphorus, and iron are the elements most likely to be used in insufficient quantities (see Figures 78, 79, and 80).

Calcium is needed for building the hard tissues such as the teeth and bones. A diet deficient in calcium is sometimes the cause of poor teeth. Calcium is equally important for body-regulating functions. It is especially necessary that calcium-rich food be given to children.

_The most practical and effective way of obtaining calcium is to use a generous supply of milk._ Cheese, eggs, and the leaves and stems of plant-foods are also valuable sources of calcium.

_Milk, egg yolk, cheese, whole grains, and vegetables are the most satisfactory sources of phosphorus._ A free use of these foods is especially desirable since it has been found that phosphorus is quite as necessary as nitrogen. The whole grains are a very valuable source of ash. Many of the ash constituents in cereals are found next to the outer coat of bran, hence fine white flour is not so rich in ash as whole wheat flour.

In the formation of blood and for the welfare of the body as a whole, iron is needed. For this reason, it is often a constituent of "tonics." If foods rich in iron were more generally used, the body would not be so likely to get into a condition requiring such tonics. The iron found in eggs, milk, and vegetable foods is thought to be more completely assimilated than that found in meat. Spinach and prunes are valuable sources of iron. This is one of the reasons why they are most desirable foods for children. _The need of eggs, dried fruits, fresh vegetables, and whole grain in diet to furnish iron should be emphasized_.

_Sulphur_ is one of the necessary elements of the body. It is usually found, however, as a component of protein; hence if enough protein is supplied to the diet, sulphur will be present in sufficient quantity.

As mentioned, leafy vegetables not only supply calcium but _sodium_ and _chlorine_,--two of the needed minerals of the body. If fresh vegetables and fruits along with foods rich in calcium, iron, and phosphorus are used, and these foods are cooked and served so as to retain all their nutriment, one can be assured that the diet contains _all_ the necessary ash constituents.

C. _Food for Regulating_.--Although ash is needed for body-building, it also serves to regulate certain body processes as explained previously. Hence if the mineral matter valuable for building is used, the body is also supplied with regulating materials.

D. _Food for Promoting Growth_.--A discussion of vitamines,--the materials essential for growth of the body and the maintenance of health,--was given in a previous lesson. It is most necessary that foods rich in vitamines be included in diet.

E. _Food for Bulk_.--The use of foods containing cellulose, which adds bulk to diet, is needed by most persons. Many foods rich in mineral matter also contain much cellulose. Vegetables, fruits, and whole grains furnish both of these materials.

OTHER FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN MENU-MAKING.--For successful menu- making, a number of factors other than the selection of foods to meet the needs of the body should be considered. A discussion of these follows:

A. _Appetizing Foods_.--If the appetite needs stimulation, foods which have an appetizing effect may be used for the first course of meals. Fruit is very often served for the first course of a breakfast and sometimes for the first course of a luncheon. Soup may serve as the appetizer of either a luncheon or dinner. Cream soup being especially nourishing because of its milk content not only serves as an appetizing food, but as one of the nutritious foods of a meal.

B. _Foods of Contrasting Flavor_.--If beef or some other protein-rich food is chosen for the main dish of a meal (such as dinner), root vegetables or grains rich in starch, but bland in flavor, are good additions. By combining foods of decided flavor with those of less pronounced taste and those rich in one foodstuff with those abounding in another nutrient, combinations that are both pleasing and varied in flavor may be secured. A housekeeper needs to use "imagination" in selecting foods that will taste well together.

C. _Variation of Foods_.--The same food should not be used twice in the same meal, even though it is prepared in a different form. It would be monotonous to serve tomato soup and tomato salad, or bean soup and baked beans at the same meal. Neither would one care to have hash served for both breakfast and luncheon on the same day. Of course such foods as bread and butter may be used with every meal.

D. _Moist and Dry Foods_.--A combination of "moist" and "dry" foods is more pleasing than a combination of foods of equal dryness or moisture. This does not mean that dry foods should be "rinsed down" with liquids; that is unwise from a physiological standpoint. To the majority of persons, creamed potatoes are more desirable with broiled steak than plain boiled potatoes. The latter would be more pleasing with meat served with a sauce or gravy.

E. _Sweet Foods_.--A sweet food should not be eaten at the beginning of a meal. Such sugar-rich foods as preserves and jellies may be served with the main course of a meal or at its close. As explained previously, the sugar is then diluted with other food materials and proves less irritating. If desserts are included in a menu, the practice of serving them at the close of a meal is desirable from a dietetic viewpoint. When the appetite is partially appeased, there is less tendency to eat large quantities of sweet foods.

A dessert that is rich in both fat and sugar such as pastry should be served only with a light meal, while a light dessert such as fruit or gelatine may be used at the close of a heavy meal.

Very often dried fruits and nuts are used as accessories after a meal. They are then often digested with difficulty, because the meal itself has taxed the digestive organs. These foods should be considered as a part of the meal and should not be added after enough other nutrients have been eaten. There is no reason why a wholesome dessert should not be considered one of the nutritious foods of a meal.

F. _Milk and Beverages_.--Since milk is necessary for perfect nourishment it is well for adults to use it as a beverage for at least one meal each day. Children should use it at all meals. If milk is distasteful to any or all members of a family, cocoa made with much milk may be served in its stead. In meal planning, a housekeeper should see to it that the proper quantity of milk either as a beverage or constituent of such dishes as cream soup, vegetables, and custards is used by each member of the family.

When tea and coffee are included in meal plans, the fact that these beverages have no food value except the milk and sugar added to them, should be taken into consideration.

G. _Foods on Hand_.--When menus are made the thrifty housekeeper considers those materials she has on hand and especially those which would spoil if not used at once. Very often left-over material serves as a basis on which to plan one or more meals.

A housekeeper may drain from a vegetable the water in which it was cooked. But she sees in it for the next meal or for the next day several possible uses. The vegetable stock may be used in soup or it may be combined with milk or cheese and serve as a sauce for some left-over vegetable. Bread crumbs combined with milk, peanuts, or egg make a tasty meat substitute one week; or they may be utilized in making bread pudding the second week; a scalloped dish the third week; and a meat loaf the fourth. If several pieces of dry cake are on hand, a tasty dessert may be made by pouring over them some hot sauce such as apple or chocolate. Dry cake may also be crumbed and used in place of flour and sugar in a steamed pudding.

It is possible, of course, for a housekeeper to spend an undue amount of time in utilizing left-overs or to defeat her efforts in thrift and buy expensive supplementary foods in order to use food on hand. Often it is wise to cook just enough so that there are no left-overs. On the other hand, it is sometimes economical as far as fuel and time are concerned to plan to cook enough food at one time for more than one meal. This is especially true of foods requiring long cooking such as baked beans and other dried foods.

MENU PLANS.--Serving meals in a number of courses should be attempted only where the housekeeper is assisted in her work. For everyday living the meals of most families are served only in one or two courses.

Although there are a great many things to be considered in menu-making, it is not necessary to use a great variety of foods to meet the requirements of successful meal planning. A breakfast consisting of fruit, rolled oats, and top milk, for example, is simple, but it embraces all the factors involved in the planning of a desirable meal.

As previously mentioned, the groups of foods may serve as a basis for menu planning. After selecting foods from each group that are seasonable, economic, and that will "taste well" together it is wise to analyze the menu. See if it contains all the essentials of diet to meet the needs of the body as explained previously. Some housekeepers find it helpful to have lists of dishes found to be satisfactory for serving, such as lists of meat dishes, vegetables, salads, desserts, etc., and glance over these when planning meals.

The menu plans which follow are merely suggestive. Both simple and more elaborate menus are given for each of the three meals.

A breakfast may consist of:

Fruit Cereal or Eggs and Toast Beverage

_or_

Fruit or Cereal (or both) Meat, Egg, or Vegetable Bread and Butter Beverage

A luncheon or supper may consist of:

Cream Soup Bread and Butter Salad or fruit Beverage

_or_

Fruit or Cream Soup {Fish or Meat Substitutes {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad Dessert Beverage

A dinner may consist of:

{Meat {Vegetables {Bread and Butter Salad or Dessert Beverage

_or_

Clear Soup Fish {Meat {Vegetables {Bread With or Without Butter Salad Dessert Beverage

QUESTIONS

Mention several combinations of two or more foods that are varied in moisture, dryness, and composition, and that are of contrasting flavor. Give reasons for making the combinations.

Make out suitable menus in your home for a week. Compute the cost of the week's menus. If the cost does not come within the limit that can be spent for food in your home, change the menus so that the cost does not exceed the food allowance.

LESSON CVI

PLANNING, COOKING, AND SERVING A LUNCHEON OR SUPPER

Plan a luncheon or supper, [Footnote 72: If the laboratory period is limited to 90 minutes, all this time will be required to cook and serve the meal and wash the dishes. Hence, it will be necessary to do the meal planning in a previous lesson.] making it a one-dish meal or using a meat substitute instead of meat. Also use seasonable food-materials and follow the suggestions given in Lesson CV . Compute the cost of the menu. If it exceeds 20 cents per person, change the menu so that its cost comes within this amount. Analyze the menu. Is food from each of the groups contained in it?

Cook and serve the luncheon or supper. Follow the English or family style of serving. Serve the meal without a maid.

LESSON CVII

REVIEW: MEAL COOKING

MENU

Seasonable Vegetable Salad Salad Dressing Salad Rolls

See Lesson XIV for suggestions regarding the preparation of the lesson.

LESSON CVIII

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 73: See Lesson IX]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Plan and prepare one-dish meals or meals containing meat-substitute,--at least one a week.

Plan and prepare meals containing meat,--at least one a week.

Compute the cost of these meals. Also note the time required to prepare them.

SUGGESTED AIMS: (1) To determine the difference in time required to cook a one-dish meal and a meal containing several different dishes.

(2) To determine the difference in cost of a meal without meat and one containing a meat-substitute.

DIVISION TEN

QUICK BREADS: POUR BATTERS

LESSON CIX

LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR. POPOVERS

When flour is to be moistened and baked to make bread or cake, other ingredients are usually added to improve the grain, texture, and flavor.

To understand some of the principles of mixing and lightening baked flour mixtures, try the following:

EXPERIMENT 64: LEAVENING WITH STEAM AND AIR.[Footnote 74: NOTE TO THE TEACHER.--Experiments 64 and 65 can be performed most expeditiously by dividing the class into groups of two and having each group do the two experiments.]--Mix 1/8 cupful of flour and 1/8 cupful of cold water. Beat thoroughly with a Dover egg beater. Note the consistency of the batter. Pour at once into an oiled muffin pan. Bake in a hot oven for at least 20 minutes. Remove from the pan, break it open, and answer the following questions:

What happened during baking to the cold air inclosed in the mixture? With what material did the flour combine during baking? Into what form was a part of the water changed during baking? Explain fully how the mixture was made porous.

EXPERIMENT 65: COMPARISON OF THICK AND THIN QUICK BREADS--Repeat Experiment 64, using 1/2 tablespoonful of cold water instead of 1/8 cupful. After baking, examine and compare with the bread of Experiment 64. Which is the more porous? Explain how the difference in quantity of moisture accounts for the difference in grain. If a mixture is to be leavened with steam and air, what should be the consistency of the mixture?

Some simple flour mixtures are lightened by the method indicated above. In most cases, however, more air is introduced into the mixture by using lightly beaten eggs, or by using ingredients that produce gas, on being moistened and heated.

EXPERIMENT 66: PREPARATION OF FLOUR FOR QUICK BREADS.--Measure 1/4 cupful of pastry flour just as it comes from the can. Sift it, and return it carefully to the measuring cup, using a teaspoon. How much does the flour measure now? What does this experiment teach with regard to sifting flour before measuring? Of what advantage is it to sift flour not only before measuring, but when adding it to the other ingredients of a quick bread?

[NOTE.--Use this sifted flour for making Popovers.]

In preparing all quick bread mixtures, _pastry flour_ (see _Wheat Flour_) should be used. It should be sifted before measuring. Usually any other powdered ingredient, such as baking powder, soda, or spices, is added to the flour and mixed thoroughly (by sifting) into the other materials. Baking powder and soda need not be sifted before measuring, but should be stirred.

OVEN THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURES.--The ovens of a number of ranges are equipped with thermometers. Although it is possible to secure more satisfactory results with a thermometer than without, oven thermometers do not always indicate the temperature of an oven accurately. If a thermometer is fastened on an oven door, for example, and the door does not heat as quickly or to as high a degree as the interior of the oven, the true temperature of the oven cannot be ascertained by this device. By making allowance for the difference, however, such a thermometer may prove very useful. It is much more accurately and conveniently read than a thermometer which is hung or rests inside the oven unless the oven is provided with a glass door.

A device known as an "Oven Heat Regulator" (see Figure 81) may be attached to gas ranges. These devices do not merely measure the heat of an oven, but control it and keep the oven temperature constant. A "temperature wheel" (shown at B) is set for a desired temperature and the oven burner lighted. By the expansion or contraction of a sensitive copper tube placed in the top of the oven (shown at A) the gas valve (shown at C) is opened or closed. When the valve is opened the amount of gas burning is increased or decreased so that the temperature of the oven is kept constant, _i.e._ at the temperature at which the wheel is set. Insulated ovens, _i.e._ ovens which are constructed so as to retain heat and allow little to escape, are found on some of the modern gas, electric, and kerosene stoves. Some of the insulated electric ovens are provided with clocks or dials which may be adjusted so that the current is cut off automatically at the expiration of a certain length of time, or when a certain temperature is reached (see Figure 14). Because of the insulated walls on such ovens, the food continues to cook on "stored heat."

A chemical thermometer inserted in an oven is a fairly satisfactory means of obtaining oven temperatures. If one has the use of an oven provided with a chemical thermometer in the school kitchen, tests may be obtained so that the temperature of the oven in the home kitchen may be estimated. The tests are as follows: Heat the oven; when it reaches a temperature of 250 degrees F., [Footnote 75: See footnote 86, regarding the use of the Fahrenheit scale.] place a piece of white paper in the oven. After 5 minutes, remove the paper, note the color. Continue to heat the oven; place paper in the oven at 350 degrees F., 400 degrees F., 425 degrees F., 450 degrees F., 475 degrees F., 500 degrees F., 525 degrees F., and 550 degrees F. Note the color of each piece of paper.