Chapter 24

The coarser grain products, however, have more available ash than the fine flours. Indeed, experiments show that the bran of coarse cereals is a valuable source of ash [Footnote 92: See "Chemistry of Food and Nutrition," Second Edition, H. C. Sherman, p. 306, "Grain Products," and p. 308.] and that whole wheat flour is a more complete food than fine or bolted wheat flour. [Footnote 93: See "The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition," E.V. McCollum, p.140.] Doubtless, for many persons, whole wheat foods are more beneficial than fine flour products.

PER CENT OF NUTRIENTS; NUTRITIVE VALUES.--The per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment it will yield. The nutrient must be in a condition to be absorbed. Wheat grains contain as much protein when whole as when ground into meal, yet uncooked whole wheat grains yield little nourishment to the body. They pass through the system with much nutriment unextracted. Even if the unbroken grains are thoroughly cooked, they will not furnish as much nourishment to the body as they will when in the form of meal.

In the consideration of nutritive value, the personal factor enters, for some persons assimilate food much more easily or completely than others. In summing up what has been said, it will be seen that three factors determine the nutritive value of a food: (_a_) per cent of nutrients, (_b_) form of nutrients, and (_c_) personal digestive characteristics.

DROP BATTERS.--All batters can be stirred with a spoon. Drop batters are somewhat stiffer than pour batters. They contain, approximately, _two parts of flour to one part of moisture_. Compare the Plain Muffin recipe below with that for Popovers. Note how the recipes differ in the quantity of flour used. Why do muffins contain baking powder, while popovers do not? Muffin mixture is a typical drop batter.

PLAIN MUFFINS

2 cupfuls flour 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1/2 teaspoonful salt 2 tablespoonfuls fat 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1 egg 1 cupful milk

Break the egg into a mixing bowl, beat it. Add the milk to it. Melt the fat, add it to the egg mixture.

Measure the dry ingredients thoroughly. Add them (through a sifter) to the other ingredients. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and drop into buttered muffin pans. Bake in a hot oven (400 degrees F.) from 25 to 30 minutes.

_Whole wheat_ flour may be substituted for fine white flour.

For _graham_ muffins, use 1 cupful of fine white flour and 1 cupful of graham flour.

1 1/8 cupfuls of _sour milk_ may be used instead of 1 cupful of sweet milk. If this substitution is made, use 1/2 teaspoonful baking soda and decrease the baking powder to 2 teaspoonfuls.

_Molasses_ may be substituted for sugar.

QUESTIONS

Account for the quantity of baking powder in the muffin recipes. What determines the quantity of baking powder?

Write a recipe for muffins, using sour cream instead of milk. What ingredients may be decreased in quantity if sour cream is used?

If all the cups in the muffin pan are not filled with batter, how should the empty cups be protected while in the oven?

How many muffins will the recipes above make?

From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of patent wheat flour, of graham flour, and of "entire" wheat flour. Which contains the most protein and ash? Which probably yields the most protein to the body? Account for the discrepancy (see _Value of Coarse Flour_).

Tabulate the percentage composition of baker's flour and of a high grade of wheat flour (patent roller process). Which contains the more protein? Which, the more carbohydrates?

What is the weight of a barrel of flour? Of an ordinary sack of flour?

What is the present price per sack of baker's and of high-grade patent flour?

How many cupfuls in a pound of flour?

In what quantity are whole wheat flour and graham flour usually purchased for home use? What is the price per pound of each?

LESSON CXXI

COMPARISON OF WHEAT AND OTHER GRAINS--MUFFINS

SUBSTITUTING OTHER CEREALS FOR WHEAT FLOUR.--A resourceful worker in foods is able to follow a standard recipe and make such substitutions as her available materials permit. Such ability is most desirable. It enables one to work more independently, to produce more varied foods, and to utilize all materials, allowing none to waste.

During the wheat shortage of the World War, many valuable investigations were made regarding the substitution of other grains for wheat flour. It was found that _the substitution should be based upon the relative weights of wheat flour and other flours or meals_ rather than upon their relative measures.

By comparing the weight of 1 cupful of wheat pastry flour with the same quantity of its substitutes, the following data have been obtained.

For 1 cupful of wheat flour substitute:

l 1/8 cupfuls barley flour 5/6 cupful buckwheat flour 1 1/6 cupfuls fine corn-meal 1 scant cupful peanut flour 7/8 cupful rice flour 1 1/2 cupfuls rolled oats 1 1/8 cupfuls rolled oats, ground in food chopper 1/3 cupful tapioca flour 7/8 cupful soy-bean flour 3/4 cupful potato flour 1 cupful rye flour

Although _yeast breads_ are not so satisfactory if made _entirely_ of a grain other than wheat, _quick breads of desirable grain and texture may be made without wheat_. It has been found, however, that a combination of two or more wheat substitutes gives more satisfactory results than a single substitute.

When no wheat is used in quick breads, the following combinations of substitutes are suggested by the _United States Department of Agriculture, States Relation Service_.

Rolled oats (ground) _or_ Barley flour _or_ Buckwheat flour _or_ Peanut flour _or_ Soy-bean flour

and

Corn flour _or_ Corn-meal _or_ Rice flour _or_ Potato flour _or_ Sweet potato flour

Since the wheat substitutes contain little or none of the kind of protein which when moistened forms a sticky and elastic substance, an increase in the number of eggs in quick breads containing no wheat produces a satisfactory texture. The albumin of eggs aids in holding the materials together.

By scalding certain of the wheat substitutes before adding them to other ingredients, a sticky starch paste is formed. This also aids in binding materials together.

When using a wheat substitute instead of wheat (as suggested in _Quantity of Baking Powder in Quick Breads_) it is advisable to increase the quantity of _baking powder_,--1/2 _teaspoonful for each cupful of the substitute_ used. Thus, if a muffin recipe calls for 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder and 2 cupfuls of corn flour are substituted for wheat, the quantity of baking powder should be increased to 4 1/2 teaspoonfuls.

WHY WHEAT IS POPULAR.--In this country, wheat is doubtless the most used of all grains. Its white or creamy color and mild flavor which blends well with that of many foods account in part for its popularity. From a culinary standpoint, wheat flour is more satisfactory to use than any other kind. It produces breads of pleasing texture,--tender but firm enough to hold their shape. Yeast breads made of wheat flour are larger than those made with other cereals.

Although wheat is generally used, its food value is not superior to that of other grains. It is doubtless because we are "used to" wheat that we have favored it more than other cereals.

COMPARING WHEAT WITH OTHER GRAINS.--Make a comparative study of the composition of the following:

_Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of corn-meal. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more ash?

Corn-meal does not contain as much protein as does wheat. The protein in corn-meal differs from that in wheat; it does not have the elastic property of the protein of wheat. It is this property which makes the latter so satisfactory in bread making. For this reason, it is always best to combine corn-meal with wheat flour or some other cereal in preparing corn breads.

It should be noted that corn-meal contains more fat than wheat flour, and it compares favorably in digestibility with wheat flour. There is a difference in flavor, but no difference in the nutritive value of yellow and of white corn-meal.

_Wheat Flour and Oatmeal_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour and of oatmeal. Which contains the more protein, fat, and ash? Which contains the more carbohydrates?

Oatmeal contains more protein, fat, and ash than any of the cereals commonly used. It is a very tough cereal and requires long cooking in order to make it palatable.

_Wheat Flour and Rice_.--From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour (all analyses, average). Now tabulate the percentage composition of rice (average). Which contains the more carbohydrates? Which, the more protein and ash?

Polished rice contains the least ash and protein of all the common cereals. It is also deficient in fat in comparison with the other cereals.

Unpolished rice, however, contains more than twice as much ash as the polished cereal. It also contains more fat and protein. [Footnote 94: Composition of unpolished rice: protein, 8.02; fat, 1.96; carbohydrates, 76.98; ash, 1.15.] Hence it compares favorably with the composition of other

grains.

_Wheat Flour, Barley, Buckwheat, and Rye._--From _U. S. Department of Agriculture,_ Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of wheat flour, of barley, of buckwheat, and of rye. Note the quantity of fat in barley and in buckwheat, and the small amount of protein in buckwheat and in rye.

CORN MUFFINS

1 1/3 cupfuls flour 2/3 cupful corn-meal 4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/3 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 1/4 cupfuls milk 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix as plain muffins, and bake in oiled muffin tins 25 to 30 minutes at 400 F.

_Rye meal_ may be substituted for corn-meal in this recipe.

RICE MUFFINS

1 1/3 cupfuls flour 3 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 2 tablespoonfuls sugar 1/2 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 2/3 cupful milk 1/2 cupful cooked rice 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Beat the egg; add the milk and the cooked rice. Add the dry ingredients (through a sifter) to the egg mixture; melt the fat; add it to the flour mixture. Mix quickly and thoroughly, and bake in buttered muffin tins in a hot oven (400 F.) for 25 to 30 minutes.

OATMEAL MUFFINS

Use the recipe for Plain Muffins as a basic rule. Substitute 1 cupful rolled oats for 1 cupful of wheat flour. Scald the milk, pour it over the rolled oats. Let the mixture stand for about 1/2 hour or until it is cool. Then add the other ingredients and mix as plain muffins. Use 4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder instead of 3 1/2 teaspoonfuls.

QUESTIONS

Explain why corn-meal is not used alone for corn-meal muffins (see _Wheat Flour and Corn-meal_).

Compare the quantity of milk used in Rice Muffins with that used in Plain Muffins. Account for the difference.

From _U. S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of boiled rice. Compare with the composition of the uncooked food. How much nourishment is lost by boiling?

By what method can rice be cooked to retain the most nourishment?

Explain why the per cent of nutrients in a food does not always indicate the quantity of nourishment that the nutrients yield to the body (see _Per Cent of Nutrients; Nutritive Values_).

LESSON CXXII

BAKING POWDER LOAF BREADS

QUICK LOAF BREADS.--The making of yeast bread requires kneading and covers a considerable period of time. A loaf of bread leavened with baking powder or other leavens suitable for quick breads may be made in a short time. The ingredients used for such a loaf, and the method of mixing it are about the same as for muffins. Baking the mixture in a bread pan rather than in muffin pans saves some effort in pouring the batter in the pan and in washing them. For those whose time is limited for food preparation, the making of baking powder loaf breads is recommended.

If it is necessary or desirable to use meals or flours other than wheat, baking powder loaf breads are advisable. Such

grains can be used successfully in greater quantity (i.e. with the addition of little or no wheat flour) in quick breads than in yeast breads.

A quick bread baked in a loaf should be placed in a moderate oven,--about 300 degrees F. Moderate heat is applied so that the loaf will rise sufficiently before a crust is formed. After 10 or 15 minutes, the temperature of the oven should be increased. Some secure desirable results by allowing a loaf of quick bread to stand 20 minutes before placing it in the oven. Such a procedure is unnecessary if the loaf is placed in an oven of proper temperature.

WHOLE WHEAT BAKING POWDER BREAD

3 cupfuls whole wheat flour 3 tablespoonfuls sugar 2 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 7/8 teaspoonful baking soda 1 1/2 teaspoonfuls salt 1 egg 1 3/4 cupfuls sour milk 3 tablespoonfuls fat

Mix these ingredients in the same way as Plain Muffins. Pour into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.

The egg may be omitted. If this is done, increase the baking powder to 3 1/4 teaspoonfuls.

_Peanut Bread_ may be made by adding 1 cupful chopped peanuts. If commercial salted peanuts are used, decrease the salt to 1/2 teaspoonful.

PRUNE BAKING POWDER BREAD

1 1/2 cupfuls whole wheat flour 1 cupful pastry flour 3/8 cupful sugar 5 3/4 teaspoonfuls baking powder 1 teaspoonful salt 1 egg 1 cupful prunes (measured before soaking and cooking) 1 cupful liquid (prune water and milk) 2 tablespoonfuls fat

Wash the prunes, soak, and cook them as directed previously. Drain, stone, and cut in pieces or chop them.

Break an egg in the mixing bowl. Beat it and add the chopped prunes. Put the water drained from the prunes in a measuring cup and fill up the latter with milk. Add this liquid to the egg and prune mixture. Then proceed as in making Plain Muffins. Turn into an oiled bread pan. Bake in a moderate oven (325 degrees F.) 45 to 60 minutes.

_Raisins_ or _dates_ may be used instead of prunes. These fruits may be cooked before adding to the other ingredients or they may be used uncooked. If the latter plan is followed, use 1 1/4 cupfuls milk instead of 1 cupful liquid.

QUESTIONS

Write a recipe for Prune Baking Powder Bread in which no eggs are used.

Write a recipe for Raisin Baking Powder Bread in which uncooked raisins are used, and sour milk is substituted for sweet milk.

Use the recipe for Whole Wheat Baking Powder Bread as a basis, and write a recipe for a loaf of quick bread in which fine white flour is used. Decrease the sour milk to 1 1/2 cupfuls. If the latter change is made, what ingredients will also require changing in quantity?

LESSON CXXIII

EGGS FOR QUICK BREADS--CREAM PUFFS

DRIED EGGS.--Eggs are a most valuable food, but they are extremely high in price. In the packing and transportation of eggs, many are broken. To save these cracked eggs, methods of drying them have been devised. If dried or desiccated eggs are cooked or used in cooked foods, they are not injurious. Their food value is high.

It has been found [Footnote 95: See Journal of Home Economics, Vol. XI, p. 108 (March, 1919), "The Use of Desiccated Eggs," by Lois Lhamon] that desiccated eggs can be used successfully in custards, quick breads, cakes, and salad dressings. _Use 1 slightly rounded tablespoonful of dried egg for each egg desired_. To this amount of powder, _add 3 tablespoonfuls of water_. Cover the mixture and allow to stand from 30 to 45 minutes, stirring occasionally. A solution is thus obtained, which resembles eggs in which the whites and yolks have been beaten together.

Desiccated eggs should not be confused with the so-called egg-substitute powders. The latter contain little and sometimes no dried egg. These usually are composed of starch, coloring material, with a little nitrogenous material in the form of gelatine, casein, or albumin. Their food value cannot be compared with that of eggs. For the amount of nutriment contained in egg-substitute powders, their price is high.

THE PREPARATION OF EGGS FOR DELICATE QUICK BREADS.--In all the quick bread mixtures given thus far, the whites and yolks of eggs were beaten together. It was shown in Experiments 41 and 43 that more air could be inclosed in an egg mixture when the white and yolk were beaten separately. It is well, therefore, to beat each part of an egg separately when a delicate bread is desired.

The reason that meringues, unless cooked, fall after a time, is because some of the inclosed air has escaped. From this it is apparent why eggs used in quick breads should not be beaten until ready for use.

It is possible, also, by much stirring and careless mixing, to lose some of the air inclosed in a beaten egg white. When the egg is to be separated, the method of cutting and folding, as used in Foamy Omelet, should be used for mixing the egg whites with the other ingredients of a quick bread.

CREAM PUFF BATTER.--The flour of cream puff mixture is usually cooked before baking so that a paste is formed. When the mixture containing the flour paste is dropped on a flat surface, it does not spread to a great extent and holds its shape. It is possible to mix Cream Puffs in the same manner as Popovers. If this method is followed and uncooked flour is added to the batter, it is necessary to bake the cream puff mixture in muffin tins or gem pans.

The method of leavening Cream Puffs is similar to that used in leavening Popovers, _i.e._ by means of steam and air inclosed in beaten eggs.

CREAM PUFFS

1/2 cupful water 3 tablespoonfuls vegetable oil 1 tablespoonful butter 5/8 cupful flour 1/4 teaspoonful salt 2 eggs

Mix the water and fat and heat the mixture until the water boils. Add all of the flour and salt and mix thoroughly. Stir and cook until the ingredients are well blended and the paste does not stick to the sides of the pan. (Care should be taken not to cook the mixture too long. If the fat separates from the other ingredients, the puffs will not be successful.) While the mixture is hot, add the eggs, unbeaten, one at a time. Beat until thoroughly mixed. Drop by tablespoonfuls on an oiled baking-sheet, and bake at 450 degrees F., for 20 minutes, then at 325 degrees F., for 25 minutes. When cool slit one side open and fill with Cream or Chocolate Filling or Whipped Cream.

Cream Puffs may also be filled with creamed chicken or veal, or a salad mixture.

CREAM FILLING

1 cupful flour 3/4 cupful sugar 2 cupfuls scalded milk 1/2 tablespoonful butter 1 egg 1/4 teaspoonful salt 1 teaspoonful vanilla

Mix the flour and sugar together. Slowly add the hot milk. Pour the mixture into a double boiler and cook for 20 minutes. Remove from heat. Beat the egg, add the egg and butter to the flour and milk mixture. Return to the fire and cook over water until the egg is coagulated; then add the salt. Cool, and add flavoring.

For economy the butter may be omitted.

_Chocolate Filling_ may be made by following the recipe for Cream Filling, increasing the sugar to 1 cupful and adding a paste made by cooking 1 square (or ounce) of chocolate with 1/4 cupful of water as directed in Chocolate Corn-starch Pudding.

QUESTIONS

Note the quantity of flour and water used in cream puff mixture. What kind of batter do these quantities of flour and moisture usually make? How do you account for the consistency of the cream puff batter when it is ready to bake?

From the difference in the methods of preparing Cream Puffs and Popovers before baking, explain the difference in the stiffness of the mixtures.

By what gas is the mixture lightened? By what means is this gas introduced into the mixture?

Why is it necessary to bake the mixture for so long a time?

What is the result of baking this mixture for too short a time?

In Cream Filling, what is the purpose of mixing the flour and sugar before cooking (see Experiment 24)?

Give two reasons for cooking this mixture in the double boiler, rather than directly over the flame.

How long a time does it take to thicken the flour mixture? Why is it necessary to cook it for 20 minutes?

What is the use of eggs in the filling? Why are they not cooked as long as the flour mixture?

Determine the number of Cream Puffs this recipe will make.

From _U.S. Department of Agriculture_, Bulletin No. 28, tabulate the percentage composition of the edible portions of whole eggs (see Figure 75), of egg yolk, and of egg white. Compare the last two. Which contains the more fat? Which contains the more protein? Which contains the more water? Which contains the more nutriment?

Tabulate the percentage composition of milk (see Figure 64).

RELATED WORK

LESSON CXXIV

FOOD REQUIREMENT

DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT.--One hears much concerning working efficiency, _i.e._ the ability to do the maximum amount of work of the highest type with a minimum waste of effort. There is no doubt that the kind and quantity of food that an individual consumes has much to do with his working efficiency, and that it is consequently a matter worthy of serious consideration. Enough gasoline is used in an automobile so that there is produced sufficient power to move the car at the desired speed. So sufficient food should be used by the individual that enough energy be supplied to his body for its greatest usefulness.

Since foods furnish the body with energy, _the energy which the body spends in doing its work is a measure of the fuel food needed_. If the body requires a certain amount of energy for its needs, this energy, measured in Calories, can be supplied by a definite quantity of combustible food. Hence, daily energy requirements can be measured in Calories.

Scientists have done much experimenting and investigating concerning the quantity of food that individuals require. They have concluded that many factors may be taken into consideration in determining daily food requirements or _dietary standards_. Some of these factors are: (1) weight; (2) occupation; (3) age.

(1) _Relation of Weight, Size, and Shape to Daily Energy Requirement_.--In general the quantity of food required increases with the size of an individual but not at the same rate as the body weight increases. Two persons may be equal in weight, yet very different in height and shape. A tall, slender person requires more food than a short, fleshy person of the same weight. For this reason, size and shape rather than weight are found more accurate in computing the daily food requirement. However, for practical purposes, energy requirement is generally based upon body weight.

(2) _Relation of Occupation to Daily Energy Requirement_.--From the previous consideration of energy, it is obvious that muscular exercise, even though very slight, requires some expenditure of energy. It has been found that, even during sleep and rest, energy is required to carry on the functions of the body (such as the beating of the heart, etc.). Since the energy for both the voluntary and involuntary activities of the body is furnished by the fuel foods, it is clear that one's occupation is an important factor in determining the kind and quantity of food an individual should use.

The man who is doing hard physical work needs more food than the man who sits quietly at his employment.

The following table, showing the energy required for different conditions of activity, has been formulated by scientists: [Footnote 96: Atwater and Benedict, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1904, p. 215.]