c. 26), omission to take it due to mere neglect was visited in the first

instance by a fine.

[836] Liv. l.c.

[837] Cic. _ad Fam._ v. 2, 7; _pro Sulla_ 11, 34; _in Pison._ 3, 6; _pro Domo_ 35, 94. Cicero, at the close of 63, varied the oath by swearing that he had saved the state.

[838] p. 45.

[839] Liv. v. 41.

[840] The dagger is mentioned more frequently than the sword (_gladius_) as the distinctive sign of military power. Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 434 n. 1.

[841] Hence such phrases as _decedere via_, _descendere equo_, _adsurgere sella_, _caput aperire_. The senators were in the habit of rising from their seats when the consul entered the Curia (Cic. _in Pis._ 12, 26).

[842] A decree of the augurs in 426 B.C. declared the consular tribunes capable of this nomination (Liv. iv. 31).

[843] p. 165.

[844] Liv. viii. 12 “Aemilius, cujus tum fasces erant, collegam dictatorem dixit”; iv. 26 “Sors, ut dictatorem diceret (nam ne id quidem inter collegas convenerat) T. Quinctio evenit”; iv. 21 “Verginius, dum collegam consuleret, moratus, permittente eo, nocte dictatorem dixit.”

[845] Liv. iv. 17 “senatus ... dictatorem dici Mam. Aemilium jussit”; vii. 12 “dictatorem dici C. Sulpicium placuit. Consul ad id adcitus C. Plautius dixit.”

[846] ib. xxii. 57 (216 B.C.) “dictator ex auctoritate patrum dictus M. Junius.”

[847] ib. _Ep._ 19; Suet. _Tib._ 2 (the enforced abdication of Claudius Glicia, nominated by Claudius Pulcher). In Liv. iv. 26 the _coercitio_ of the tribune is represented as employed against the consuls who disobey.

[848] Mommsen in _C.I.L._ i. p. 557.

[849] Liv. xxvii 5 (210 B.C., on the proposal of the consul to nominate a dictator in Sicily) “patres extra Romanum agrum (eum autem in Italia terminari) negabant dictatorem dici posse.”

[850] ib. ix. 38-39.

[851] Polyb. iii. 87; but, as a rule, he was preceded by only twelve within the walls (Liv. _Ep._ 89 “Sulla, dictator factus, quod nemo umquam fecerat, cum fascibus viginti quatuor processit”).

[852] Liv. ii. 18 “Creato dictatore primum Romae, postquam praeferri secures viderunt, magnus plebem metus incessit.”

[853] p. 85.

[854] e.g. the dictator named by Livy (ix. 26) as “quaestionibus exercendis” (314) is mentioned in the _Fast. Capitol._ as “rei gerundae causa” (Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. p. 157 n. 2); a dictator “seditionis sedandae et rei gerundae causa” is found in the _Fasti_ for 368.

[855] Liv. vii. 24 “qui aegris consulibus comitia haberet.” Cf. c. 26 (absence of consuls in the field) and ix. 7.

[856] ib. xxiii. 22. In 216 B.C. M. Fabius Buteo was appointed dictator “qui senatum legeret.”

[857] ib. viii. 40.

[858] ib. vii. 28 (for establishment of _feriae_ on the occasion of a _prodigium_); “dictator Latinarum feriarum causa” in _Fast. Cap._ (_C.I.L._ i. p. 434) for the year 257 B.C.

[859] The first instance was on the occasion of the great pestilence in 363 B.C. (Liv. vii. 3 “Lex vetusta est ... ut, qui praetor maximus sit, Idibus Septembribus clavum pangat”). Cf. Fest. p. 56.

[860] Cic. _de Off._ iii. 31, 112 (see p. 183); cf. Liv. vii. 3. L. Manlius, appointed “clavi figendi causa,” acted “perinde ac reipublicae gerendae ... gratia creatus esset,” and was forced to abdicate.

[861] p. 84.

[862] This is Mommsen’s interpretation (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 160 n. 4) of Liv. xxx. 39. C. Servilius Geminus had been appointed dictator _comitiorum causa_—“Saepe comitia indicta perfici tempestates prohibuerunt. Itaque, cum prid. Id. Mart. veteres magistratus abissent, novi subfecti non essent, respublica sine curulibus magistratibus erat.”

[863] Liv. iv. 41. The consul is here said “auspicio dictatoris res gerere.”

[864] ib. ii. 32 “quamquam per dictatorem dilectus habitus esset, tamen, quoniam in consulum verba jurassent, sacramento teneri militem rati.”

[865] This view has led to the exaggerated statement of Polybius (iii. 87) that, on the establishment of a dictator, παραχρῆμα διαλύεσθαι συμβαίνει πάσας τὰς ἀρχὰς ἐν τῇ Ῥώμῃ πλὴν τῶν δημάρχων: which has been copied by later Greek writers.

[866] This is clearly shown by the attitude of the dictator L. Papirius Cursor when pursuing his disobedient master of the horse (Liv. viii. 34). The dictator hopes that the veto will not be employed (“optare ne potestas tribunicia, inviolata ipsa, violet intercessione sua Romanum imperium”). Zonaras expresses the fact and not the law (vii. 13 οὔτ’ ἐγκαλέσαι τις αὐτῷ οὔτ’ ἐναντίον τι διαπράξασθαι ἴσχυεν οὐδὲ οἱ δήμαρχοι).

[867] Zonar. vii. 13 οὔτε ἐκ τῶν δημοσίων χρημάτων ἀναλῶσαι τι ἐξῆν αὐτῷ, εἰ μὴ ἐψηφίσθη.

[868] Liv. _Ep._ 19 (249 B.C.) “Atilius Calatinus primus dictator extra Italiam exercitum duxit”; Dio Cass. xxxvi. 17 (the dictatorship was limited to Italy) καὶ οὐκ ἂν εὑρεθείη δικτάτωρ οὐδεὶς ἄλλοσε, πλὴν ἑνὸς ἐς Σικελίαν, καὶ ταῦτα μηδὲν πράξαντος, αἱρεθείς.

[869] Festus p. 198 “optima lex in magistro populi faciendo, qui vulgo Dictator appellator, quam plenissimum posset jus ejus esse significabatur ... postquam vero provocatio ab eo magistratu ad populum data est, quae ante non erat, desitum est adici ‘ut optima lege,’ ut pote imminuto jure priorum magistrorum.”

[870] p. 168. It could not have been a consequence of the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C. (see p. 109).

[871] Liv. xxii. 8.

[872] Livy (xxii. 25) describes it as a _rogatio_ “de aequando magistri equitum et dictatoris jure.” Cf. c. 26 “de aequato imperio.”

[873] Liv. xxii. 57, M. Junius Pera.

[874] _Fast. Capitol._

[875] Sulla was nominated by an interrex (though his powers were conferred by law), Caesar by a praetor. Plutarch (_Marc._ 24) says that the praetor could nominate the dictator, a proceeding which is declared by Cicero to be wholly unconstitutional, _ad Att._ ix. 15, 2 (49 B.C.) “volet (Caesar) ... vel ut consules roget praetor vel dictatorem dicat, quorum neutrum jus est. Etsi si Sulla potuit efficere, ab interrege ut dictator diceretur, cur hic non possit?” The nomination of Caesar was regular in so far as a special _lex_ was passed which empowered the praetor to nominate (Caes. B.C. ii. 21; Dio Cass. xli. 36).

[876] An exception is found in 216 B.C. M. Fab. Buteo was appointed “dictator sine mag. eq. senatus legendi causa” (see p. 193).

[877] In the single case of the election of a dictator, the _magister equitum_ was also elected (Liv. xxii. 8).

[878] Dio Cass. xlii. 27; Antonius, as Caesar’s _magister equitum_, had six lictors.

[879] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 9 “equitatumque qui regat, habeto pari jure cum eo, quicumque erit juris disceptator.”

[880] Pompon. in _Dig._ 1, 2, 2, 19 “et his dictatoribus magistri equitum injungebantur sic, quo modo regibus tribuni celerum: ... magistratus tamen habebantur legitimi.”

[881] Liv. iv. 34 “jussoque magistro equitum abdicare se magistratu, ipse deinde abdicat.”

[882] Liv. ix. 38 “Papirius C. Junium Bubulcum magistrum equitum dixit: atque ei, legem curiatam de imperio ferenti, triste omen diem diffidit.”

[883] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 4, 10; see p. 160.

[884] Liv. viii. 32 sq.; cf. xxii. 27 “in ... civitate, in qua magistri equitum virgas ac secures dictatoris tremere atque horrere soliti sint.”

[885] ib. iv. 27 “relictoque (at Rome) L. Julio magistro equitum ad subita belli ministeria.”

[886] ib. ii. 18; Dio Cass. xlii. 21 (Caesar τὸν Ἀντώνιον, μηδ’ ἐστρατηγηκότα, ἵππαρχον προσελόμενος).

[887] Dionys. ii. 6 τῶν δὲ παρόντων τινὲς ὀρνιθοσκόπων μισθὸν ἐκ τοῦ δημοσίου φερόμενοι.

[888] Cic. _post Red. ad Quir._ 5, 11. The first meeting of the Senate was in early times held by the elder of the two consuls (ὁ πρεσβύτερος τῶν ὑπάτων Dionys. vi. 57).

[889] Cic. _pro Planc._ 25, 60 “honorum populi finis est consulatus.”

[890] App. _B.C._ ii. 19. In formal dating the names of the two chief praetors were added. See the _Senatus Consultum de Asclepiade_ (Bruns _Fontes_).

[891] Suet. _Tib._ 31; see p. 191.

[892] Liv. xliv. 17 (169 B.C.) “designatos extemplo sortiri placuit provincias.”

[893] ib. ii. 33 “consul alter Romae mansit, alter ad Volscum bellum missus”; cf. Dionys. vi. 91; Liv. ix. 42.

[894] Cic. _de Rep._ ii. 31, 55.

[895] Festus p. 161 “majorem consulem L. Caesar putat dici, vel eum penes quem fasces sint, vel eum, qui prior factus sit.” The first explanation is doubtless the correct one.

[896] Suet. _Caes._ 20.

[897] Polyb. vi. 12 πασῶν εἰσι κύριοι τῶν δημοσίων πράξεων.

[898] Cicero furnishes an instance for the year 54 B.C., _ad Att._ iv. 15, 5 “Reatini me ad sua Τέμπη duxerunt, ut agerem causam contra Interamnates apud consulem et decem legatos, quod lacus Velinus ... in Nar defluit.”

[899] p. 167.

[900] Selection of a consul, Cic. _de Fin._ ii. 16, 54, in 141 B.C., “decreta a senatu est consuli quaestio”; of a praetor, Liv. xlii. 21, in 172 B.C., “C. Licinius praetor consuluit senatum quem quaerere ea rogatione vellet. Patres ipsum eum quaerere jusserunt.”

[901] Cic. _de Rep._ iii. 18, 28 (of the year 136 B.C.) “Consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio, de Numantino foedere.” Mommsen (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 112 n. 3) thinks that the _consilium_ was formed by the Fetiales (cf. Cic. _de Leg._ ii. 9, 21).

[902] For the question whether the _pomerium_ or the first milestone was the limit of the full _imperium_ see p. 79.

[903] For the rotation of the _imperium_ before Cannae (216 B.C.) see Polyb. iii. 110, Liv. xxii. 41.

[904] Liv. xxii. 27 “Ita (Fabius, after the appointment of Minucius as his colleague in 217 B.C.) obtinuit uti legiones, sicut consulibus mos esset, inter se dividerent.”

[905] ib. xxx. 1 (203 B.C.) “censuerunt patres, ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve, uter Bruttios adversus Hannibalem, uter Etruriam ac Ligures provinciam haberet.”

[906] Italy and Macedonia (ib. xxxii. 8, xlii. 31, xliii. 12), Italy and Greece (xxxvii. 1).

[907] Italia and some foreign country are still consular _provinciae_ in 112 and 111 B.C. (Sall. _Jug._ 27, 43). When a consul was appointed to one of the old praetorian provinces, he did not supplant the praetor but commanded with and over him.

[908] Liv. xxx. 1 “ut consules inter se compararent sortirenturve.” Cf. ib. xxxii. 8, xxxvii. 1, and the other passages cited in note 3.

[909] ib. viii. 16; cf. Cic. _pro Domo_ 9, 24. In 205 B.C. Scipio was given Sicilia _extra sortem_ because his colleague was _pontifex maximus_ (Liv. xxviii. 38).

[910] Liv. xxi. 17 (218 B.C.) “nominatae jam antea consulibus provinciae erant; tum sortiri jussi.” Cf. ib. xxviii. 38.

[911] Sall. _Jug._ 27; Cic. _pro Domo_ 9, 24.

[912] Cic. _ad Att._ viii. 15, 3 “consules quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire provincias.” Lucullus went as consul to Asia in 74 B.C.

[913] p. 153.

[914] That staunch conservative Q. Catulus was wont to reflect with pleasure “non saepe unum consulem improbum, duos vero nunquam, excepto illo Cinnano tempore, fuisse” (Cic. _post Red. in Sen._ 4, 9). By _improbi_ Catulus meant “radicals.”

[915] The consul was the “legitimus tutor” of the state (Cic. _post Red. ad Quir._ 5, 11) and “quasi parens bonus aut tutor fidelis” (_de Or._ iii. 1, 3).

[916] p. 120.

[917] Two praetors for Sicily and Sardinia (Liv. _Ep._ xx.), two more for the Spanish provinces (Liv. xxxii. 27). For the _lex Baebia_ see Liv. xl. 44. For the restoration of the number six see Vell. ii. 16. Pomponius says that four were added by Sulla (_Dig._ 1, 2, 2, 32), but eight are found in 47 B.C. (Dio Cass. xlii. 51).

[918] The praetor had a right to six lictors (στρατηγὸς ἑξαπέλεκυς, App. _Syr._ 15; cf. Polyb. iii. 40) and appears with the full number in the province (Cic. _in Verr._ v. 54, 142 “sex lictores circumsistunt”); but, in the exercise of his jurisdiction within the city, he employed, or was allowed, only two (Censorinus _de Die Nat._ 24, 3; cf. Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 34, 93).

[919] _Praetor urbanus_ (_S. C. de Bacch._ ll. 5, 8, 17, 21), _praetor qui inter cives jus dicet_ (_lex Agraria_ of 111 B.C.), _provincia_ or _sors urbana_ (Liv. xxiv. 9, xxv. 3, xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10, xxix. 13), jurisdictio urbana (ib. xxxii. 28, xlii. 31)—_praetor qui inter peregrinos jus dicet_ (_lex Acil._ ll. 12 and 89; _lex Jul. Munic._ ll. 8 and 12), _jurisdictio inter peregrinos_ (Liv. xl. 1), _provincia peregrina_ (ib. xxvii. 7, xxviii. 10). Both these praetors, as distinct from those in foreign command, are said to have _urbanae provinciae_ (ib. xliii. 11), _provincia urbana_ (xxxii. 1), _jurisdictio urbana_ (xxv. 41, xxx. 1).

[920] p. 197.

[921] App. _B. C._ ii. 112.

[922] Cic. _Phil._ ii. 13, 31.

[923] p. 174.

[924] Liv. xlii. 21.

[925] ib. xxvii. 5.

[926] ib. xliii. 14.

[927] ib. xlii. 21; see p. 199.

[928] e.g. in the _dilectus_ (ib. xxv. 22, xxxix. 20, xlii. 35).

[929] After Cannae the two urban praetors summoned the Senate (ib. xxii. 55). In 197 B.C., on the news of troubles in Spain, “decreverunt patres ut, comitiis praetorum perfectis, cui praetori provincia Hispania obvenisset, is primo quoque tempore de bello Hispaniae ad senatum referret” (ib. xxxiii. 21).

[930] The _provinciae_ assigned to the four praetors are _urbana_, _peregrina_, Sicilia, Sardinia (ib. xxviii. 10), to the six praetors the same with the addition of the two Spains (ib. xxxii. 28, xl. 1).

[931] ib. xxv. 3 (212 B.C.) “Et praetores provincias sortiti sunt; P. Cornelius Sulla urbanam et peregrinam, quae duorum ante sors fuerat.” Cf. ib. xxxvii. 50 (189 B.C.).

[932] ib. xxix. 13 (204 B.C.) “M. Marcio urbana, L. Scribonio Liboni peregrina et eidem Gallia.”

[933] ib. xxiv. 9 (215 B.C.) “comitiis praetorum perfectis, senatus consultum factum ut Q. Fulvio extra ordinem urbana provincia esset.”

[934] Gaius _Inst._ iv. 30 “per legem Aebutiam et duas Julias sublatae sunt istae legis actiones; effectumque est ut per concepta verba, id est, per formulas, litigaremus”; Gell. xvi. 10, 8 “cum ... omnis ... illa duodecim tabularum antiquitas nisi in legis actionibus centumviralium causarum lege Aebutia lata consopita sit.”

[935] Marcian in _Dig._ 1, 1, 8 “nam et ipsum jus honorarium viva vox est juris civilis.”

[936] Cic. _de Leg._ i. 5, 17 “Non ergo a praetoris edicto, ut plerique nunc, neque a XII Tabulis, ut superiores ... hauriendam juris disciplinam putas.” Cf. _de Leg._ ii. 23, 59 “discebamus enim pueri XII, ut carmen necessarium: quas jam nemo discit.”

[937] Papinian in _Dig._ 1, 1, 7, 1 “jus praetorium est, quod praetores introduxerunt adjuvandi vel supplendi vel corrigendi juris civilis gratia propter utilitatem publicam.”

[938] For the edict as the expression of customary law see Cic. _de Invent._ ii. 22, 67 “Consuetudine autem jus esse putatur id, quod voluntate omnium sine lege vetustas comprobarit.... Quo in genere et alia sunt multa et eorum multo maxima pars, quae praetores edicere consuerunt.”

[939] Cic. _in Verr._ i. 42, 109 “qui plurimum tribuunt edicto, praetoris edictum legem annuam dicunt esse.”

[940] Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 58; Cic. _in Verr._ i. 44, 114. _Perpetuum_ means “continuous,” _tralaticium_ “transmitted.”

[941] Cic. _in Verr._ i. 46, 119. Cf. p. 178.

[942] Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 58 “Aliam deinde legem Cornelius, ... tulit, ut praetores ex edictis suis perpetuis jus dicerent, quae res ... gratiam ambitiosis praetoribus, qui varie jus dicere assueverant, sustulit.” Cf. Dio Cass. xxxvi. 23.

[943] p. 202.

[944] Cic. _in Verr._ Act. i. 8, 21; _pro Mur._ 20, 42. The fullest account that we possess of the distribution of such functions amongst the members of the college refers to the year 66 B.C. (ib. _pro Cluent._ 53, 147; Ascon. _in Cornel._ p. 59).

[945] e.g. the _lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis_ took cognisance of murder, poisoning, and arson, that _de falsis_ of the forgery of documents and of wills as well as of coining.

[946] After the _sortitio_ for 62 B.C. the praetor Q. Metellus Celer was given the province of Cisalpine Gaul (Cic. _ad Fam._ v. 2, 3, and 4). During his praetorship (63 B.C.) he had been summoned to a command in northern Italy.

[947] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7 “Suntoque aediles, curatores urbis, annonae ludorumque sollemnium: ollisque ad honoris amplioris gradum is primus ascensus esto.” Cf. _lex Jul. Munic._ l. 24.

[948] p. 122.

[949] Cic. _in Verr._ v. 14, 36.

[950] Livy (iii. 55), in stating the ineffectiveness of the _sacrosanctitas_ granted by law and not by oath, says “itaque aedilem prendi ducique a majoribus magistratibus, etc.” Cf. Gell. xiii. 13.

[951] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7, cited p. 208.

[952] p. 98.

[953] Dio Cass. liv. 36.

[954] _Lex Jul. Munic._ ll. 20, 32-45, 29, 46.

[955] Suet. _Vesp._ 5; _lex Jul. Munic._ l. 68.

[956] Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 6, 4 (Caelius Rufus, curule aedile in 50 B.C., says) “nisi ego cum tabernariis et aquariis pugnarem, veternus civitatem occupasset.”

[957] ib. _in Verr._ v. 14, 36 “mihi sacrarum aedium procurationem, mihi totam urbem tuendam esse commissam.”

[958] Liv. xxv. 1 (on the spread of foreign superstitions in Rome in 213 B.C.) “incusati graviter ab senatu aediles triumvirique capitales, quod non prohiberent.” Cf. Cic. _de Har. Resp._ 13, 27.

[959] Macrob. _Sat._ ii. 6 “lapidatus a populo Vatinius cum gladiatorium munus ederet, obtinuerat ut aediles edicerent ne quis in arenam nisi pomum misisse vellet.”

[960] Seneca _Ep._ 86, 10 “hoc quoque nobilissimi aediles fungebantur officio intrandi ea loca quae populum receptabant exigendique munditias et utilem ac salubrem temperaturam.” Cf. Suet. _Claud._ 38; Tac. _Ann._ ii. 85.

[961] Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 28 (56 A.D.) “cohibita artius et aedilium potestas statutumque quantum curules, quantum plebei pignoris caperent vel poenae inrogarent.”

[962] _Dig._ 21, 1, 40-42 (from the edict of the curule aediles) “ne quis canem, verrem vel minorem aprum, lupum, ursum, pantheram, leonem ... qua vulgo iter fiet, ita habuisse velit, ut cuiquam nocere damnumve dare possit.”

[963] p. 208 n. 4.

[964] Liv. xxiii. 41; xxxi. 50; xxxiii. 42. Cic. _de Off._ ii. 17, 58 “ne M. quidem Sejo vitio datum est, quod in caritate asse modium populo dedit: magna enim se et inveterata invidia, nec turpi jactura, quando erat aedilis, nec maxima liberavit.”

[965] Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 6, 5 (from Caelius Rufus in 50 _B.C._) “alimentariam (legem), qua jubet aediles metiri, jactavit (Curio).”

[966] Liv. xxvi. 10 (211 B.C., when Hannibal was at the gates of Rome) “Fulvius Flaccus ... inter Esquilinam Collinamque portam posuit castra. Aediles plebis commeatum eo comportarunt.”

[967] For this there is no direct evidence, but the aediles complain about the transgression of sumptuary laws in Tac. _Ann._ iii. 52-55.

[968] Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. p. 499. He takes “cum tabernariis pugnarem” (Cic. _ad Fam._ viii. 6, 4, cited p. 209) in this sense.

[969] _Dig._ 21, 1, 1; Gell. iv. 2.

[970] Cic. _in Verr._ v. 14, 36.

[971] Liv. x. 47; xxvii. 6. They were shared by both colleagues (Suet. _Caes._ 10).

[972] Liv. xxiii. 30.

[973] Dio Cass. xliii. 48 (44 B.C.). Here by a decree of the Senate the Megalesia are celebrated by the plebeian aediles.

[974] When during the first Punic war Clodia uttered her ill-omened wish about the Roman people, “C. Fundanius et Ti. Sempronius, aediles plebei, multam dixerunt ei aeris gravis viginti quinque milia” (Gell. x. 6). Cf. Suet. _Tib._ 2.

[975] Cicero promises, as aedile, to prosecute those “qui aut deponere aut accipere aut recipere aut pollicere aut sequestres aut interpretes corrumpendi judicii solent esse” (_in Verr._ Act. i. 12, 36).

[976] An instance is furnished by Clodius’ prosecution of Milo in 56 B.C. (Cic. _pro Sest._ 44, 95; _ad Q. fr._ 2, 3). A prosecution by the aedile in defence of his own dignity or person is an outcome of his _coercitio_. An instance is furnished by Gell. iv. 14.

[977] Liv. viii. 22; xxv. 2.

[978] ib. xxxv. 41.

[979] ib. xxxviii. 35. Here the offence was _annona compressa_ by the corn-dealers.

[980] Condemnation “quia plus, quam quod lege finitum erat, agri possiderent” (ib. x. 13). Condemnation of _pecuarii_ (x. 47). Cf. xxxiii. 42.

[981] ib. xxxviii. 35; x. 23.

[982] p. 63.

[983] p. 80.

[984] p. 81.

[985] p. 117.

[986] Tac. _Ann._ xi. 22 “post lege Sullae viginti creati supplendo senatui.”

[987] C. Gracchus served as quaestor for three years; one was spent in Rome and two in Sardinia (Plut. _C. Gracch._ 2).

[988] Cic. _in Verr._ Act. i. 4, 11 “quaestura primus gradus honoris.”

[989] ib. i. 13, 34 “quaestor ex senatus consulto provinciam sortitus es.”

[990] Liv. xxx. 33 “Laelium, cujus ... eo anno quaestoris extra sortem ex senatusconsulto opera utebatur” (Scipio in 202 B.C.); Cic. _ad Att._ vi. 6, 4 “Pompeius ... Q. Cassium sine sorte delegit, Caesar Antonium; ego sorte datum offenderem?”

[991] The first trace of a _quaestio de sicariis_ is in 142 B.C. (Cic. _de Fin._ ii. 16, 54).

[992] Polyb. xxiv. 9_a_, 1.

[993] Liv. iii. 69 “signa ... a quaestoribus ex aerario prompta delataque in campum.”

[994] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 20, 46.

[995] Liv. xxxix. 4. It was the duty of the quaestors to see that they were genuine. Cato the younger required the oath of the consuls that a certain decree had been passed (Plut. _Cat. Min._ 17).

[996] Cic. _Phil._ v. 5, 15.

[997] ib. _in Verr._ iii. 79, 183 “eorum hominum (the _scribae_ of the quaestors) fidei tabulae publicae periculaque magistratuum committuntur.”

[998] The security was given to the _aerarium_ (“subsignare apud aerarium” Cic. _pro Flacco_ 32, 80); hence the money was probably paid into that treasury.

[999] Liv. xxxviii. 58 “Hostilius et Furius damnati (for _peculatus_ in 187 B.C.) praedes eodem die quaestoribus urbanis dederunt.” In the _lex Acil. Rep._ (l. 57) it is said of the man convicted “q(uaestori) praedes facito det.”

[1000] Plaut. _Capt._ i. 2, 111; ii. 3, 453.

[1001] Hygin. _de Cond. Agr._ p. 115.

[1002] _Auct. ad Herenn._ i. 12, 21 “Cum L. Saturninus legem frumentariam de semissibus et trientibus laturus esset, Q. Caepio, qui per id temporis quaestor urbanus erat, docuit senatum aerarium pati non posse tantam largitionem.”

[1003] p. 117.

[1004] p. 213. If the quaestor was lacking through death or any other cause, the governor appointed one of his _legati_ as _pro quaestore_ (Cic. _in Verr._ i. 36, 90).

[1005] Cic. _pro Planc._ 11, 28 “morem ilium majorum qui praescribit in parentum loco quaestoribus suis praetores esse oportere.”

[1006] ib. _in Verr._ i. 15, 40 “Tu, cum quaestor ad exercitum missus sis, custos non solum pecuniae sed etiam consulis, particeps omnium rerum consiliorumque fueris.”

[1007] Lydus _de Mag._ i. 27 κρινάντων Ῥωμαίων πολεμεῖν τοῖς συμμαχήσασι Πύρρῳ τῷ Ἠπειρὼτῃ κατεσκευάσθη στόλος καὶ προεβλήθησαν οἱ καλοὺμενοι κλασσικοὶ (οἱονεὶ ναυάρχαι) τῷ ἀριθμῷ δυοκαίδεκα κυαίστωρες. Lydus may be right about the original number, although it has been sometimes thought a confused reminiscence of the raising of the number from four to eight.

[1008] Vell. ii. 94; cf. Cic. _pro Mur._ 8, 18 “tu illam (provinciam habuisti), cui, cum quaestores sortiuntur, etiam acclamari solet, Ostiensem non tam gratiosam et illustrem quam negotiosam et molestam.”

[1009] Tac. _Ann._ iv. 27. In 24 A.D. a rising near Brundisium was repressed by “Curtius Lupus quaestor, cui provincia vetere ex more calles evenerant.” Mommsen (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 571), following Lipsius, would read Cales, the oldest Latin colony in Campania, and therefore supposes that this quaestor’s functions extended over the whole of South Italy. The woods and forests was the _provincia_ which the Senate destined for Caesar as proconsul (Suet. _Caes._ 19 “opera optimatibus data est ut provinciae futuris consulibus minimi negotii, id est, silvae callesque, decernerentur”).

[1010] Plut. _Sert._ 4.

[1011] The last to remain were the Gallic and Ostian, which, as Italian _provinciae_, were abolished by the Emperor Claudius in 44 A.D. (Suet. _Claud._ 24).

[1012] So Sertorius, as Gallic quaestor in the Marsic war, was instructed στρατιώτας ... καταλέγειν καὶ ὅπλα ποιεῖσθται (Plut. _Sert._ 4).

[1013] Cicero speaks of Vatinius, when holding this post, being sent to Puteoli on some other business (_in Vat._ 5, 12), but this does not show that he was holding an Italian quaestorship. See Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. p. 573 n. 3.

[1014] Liv. iv. 8; see p. 115.

[1015] ib. vii. 22 (C. Marcius Rutilus); cf. x. 8.

[1016] ib. viii. 12 “ut alter utique ex plebe, cum eo [ventum sit] ut utrumque plebeium fieri liceret, censor crearetur.” Madvig and Mommsen would omit “ventum sit,” and so make the Publilian law open both places in the college to Plebeians.

[1017] ib. _Ep._ lix. “Q. Pompeius Q. Metellus tunc primum utrique ex plebe facti censores lustrum condiderunt.”

[1018] Messala ap. Gell. xiii. 15, 4.

[1019] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii 11, 26 “majores de singulis magistratibus bis vos sententiam ferre voluerunt: nam cum centuriata lex censoribus ferebatur, cum curiata ceteris patriciis magistratibus, tum iterum de eisdem judicabatur.”

[1020] Messala ap. Gell. xiii. 15.

[1021] Polybius (vi. 53) says that the _imago_ of the censor at a funeral was clad in purple. As all the _insignia_ of the other magistrates that he mentions are those of their lifetime, this should be true of the censors. Perhaps the complete purple was worn for certain ceremonial purposes. Mommsen (_Staatsr._ i. pp. 411 and 446) thinks they were only buried in it.

[1022] ἁρχὴ ἀνυπεύθυνος (Dionys. xix. 16).

[1023] Liv. xxix. 37; Val. Max. vii. 2, 6.

[1024] Ascon. _in Pison._ p. 9.

[1025] Hence the helplessness of the tribune against censorial animadversion. Cf. Liv. xliv. 16 “multis equi adempti, inter quos P. Rutilio, qui tr. pl. eos violenter accusarat: tribu quoque is motus et aerarius factus.”

[1026] Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 9, 1.

[1027] For the later mode of regarding this limitation see Liv. iv. 24 “grave esse iisdem per tot annos magna parte vitae obnoxios vivere.” But, if the tenure was fixed by the _lex Aemilia_ (of the dictator Mamercus Aemilius, 434 B.C., Liv. l.c.), it originated before the censorship had become a dangerous power.

[1028] Liv. xxiii. 23 “nec censoriam vim uni permissam et eidem iterum.” The prohibition is attributed to a law of Marcius Rutilus Censorinus, censor 294 and 265 B.C. (Plut. _Cor._ 1; cf. Val. Max. iv. 1, 3); but it could not have been his work, at least as censor, for this official had not the _jus rogandi_. See Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 520.

[1029] It is Cicero’s business in the _pro Cluentio_ (43, 122) to represent this divergence of view as a weakness in the censorship; cf. Liv. xlii. 10 (173 B.C.) “concors et e re publica censura fuit ... neque ab altero notatum alter probavit.” But it was a necessary condition of the continuance of the office in a free state.

[1030] Liv. ix. 34 “cum ita comparatum a majoribus sit ut comitiis censoriis nisi duo confecerint legitima suffragia, non renuntiato altero comitia differantur.”

[1031] Tradition attributed the origin of this role to a religions scruple, “quia eo lustro (in which a _suffectus_ was appointed) Roma est capta: nec deinde unquam in demortui locum censor sufficitur” (Liv. v. 31).

[1032] Cicero mixes up the earlier and later functions in his pseudo-law, which expresses all the activities of the censors (_de Leg._ iii. 3, 7), “Censores populi aevitates, suboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis, tecta, templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus discribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines partiunto: equitum peditumque prolem discribunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto.”

[1033] Liv. ix. 30.

[1034] ib. xxiii. 22; see p. 193.

[1035] In the great _sublectio_ after Cannae (216 B.C.) the ex-curule magistrates not already on the list were chosen in the order of their tenure of power; then the ex-aediles, ex-tribunes of the _plebs_ and the _quaestorii_, lastly men of distinction who had held no magistracy (Liv. xxiii. 23).

[1036] Festus p. 246 “Ovinia tribunicia intervenit, qua sanctum est ut censores ex omni ordine optimum quemque jurati (_Cod._ curiati, _Mommsen_ curiatim) in senatum legerent.” If “ex omni ordine” means “from every grade of the magistracy,” the second interpretation is necessary.

[1037] The _oratio_ of Cato as censor against L. Quinctius Flaminius was delivered _post notam_ (Liv. xxxix. 42); but it suggests that the censors felt themselves bound at times to give reasons for their actions.

[1038] The phrases for rejection and omission are _movere_, _ejicere_, _praeterire_. The last applies both to existing and to expectant senators, and has reference to the public reading of the list (_recitatio_) (Cic. _pro Domo_ 32, 84 “praeteriit in recitando senatu”).

[1039] Liv. xli. 57 “retinuit quosdam Lepidus a collega praeteritos”; cf. Cic. _pro Cluent._ 43, 122.

[1040] For a type of _subscriptio_ see Ascon. _in or. in Tog. Cand._ p. 84 “Antonium Gellius et Lentulus censores ... senatu moverunt causasque subscripserunt, quod socios diripuerit, quod judicium recusarit, quod propter aeris alieni magnitudinem praedia manciparit bonaque sua in potestate non habeat.”

[1041] Usually the praetorship or quaestorship. Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 521 n. 3.

[1042] See the formula of summons in Varro (_L.L._ vi. 86), “omnes Quirites pedites armatos, privatosque curatores omnium tribuum, si quis pro se sive pro altero rationem dari volet, vocato in licium huc ad me.”

[1043] Mommsen believes in a special summons to the _capite censi_ (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 366).

[1044] Liv. xliii. 14.

[1045] Cato in 184 assessed articles of luxury at ten times their value (Liv. xxxix. 44; Plut. _Cat. Maj._ 18).

[1046] Liv. iv. 24 “Mamercum ... tribu moverunt octuplicatoque censu aerarium fecerunt”; Val. Max. ii. 9, 1 “Camillas et Postumius censores aera poenae nomine eos, qui ad senectutem caelibes pervenerant, in aerarium deferre jusserunt.”

[1047] See p. 69.

[1048] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7 “familias pecuniasque censento”; _lex Jul. Munic._ l. 147 “rationem pecuniae ... accipito.” _Pecunia_ here applies to both _res mancipi_ and _nec mancipi_.

[1049] Cic. l.c. “aevitates suboles ... censento”; _lex Jul. Munic._ l. 145 “eorum ... nomina, praenomina, patres ... et quot annos quisque eorum habet ... accipito.”

[1050] p. 68.

[1051] Liv. ix. 46 “forensis factio App. Claudi censura vires nacta, qui ... humilibus per omnes tribus divisis forum et campum corrupit.” Cf. Diod. xx. 46 (App. Claudius) ἔδωκε τοῖς πολίταις ὅποι προαιροῖντο τιμήσασθαι. Mommsen imagines that it was in this year that the landless citizens _first_ found a place in the tribes (_Staatsr._ ii. 392 sq., 402 sq.).

[1052] Liv. l.c. “aliud integer populus ... aliud forensis factio tendebat.... Fabius simul concordiae causa, simul ne humilimorum in manu comitia essent, omnem forensem turbam excretam in quattuor tribus conjecit urbanasque eas appellavit.”

[1053] _Sexagenarius de ponte._ Cf. Cic. _pro Rosc. Amer._ 35, 100 “Habeo etiam dicere, quem contra morem majorum, minorem annis LX de ponte in Tiberim dejecerit”; Festus p. 334 “quo tempore primum per pontem coeperunt comitiis suffragium ferre, juniores conclamaverunt ut de ponte dejicerentur sexagenari, qui jam nullo publico munere fungerentur, ut ipsi potius sibi quam illi deligerent imperatorem.” If _pons_ could be taken literally, a curious parallel is furnished by early Slavonic procedure. “The vechés passed whole days in debating the same subjects, the only interruptions being free fights in the streets. At Novgorod these fights took place on the bridge across the Volchov, and the stronger party sometimes threw their adversaries into the river beneath” (Kovalevsky _Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of Russia_, p. 138).

[1054] p. 221.

[1055] “Eorum qui arma ferre possent” (Liv. i. 44), τῶν ἐχόντων τὴν στρατεύσιμον ἡλικίαν (Dionys. xi. 63), τῶν ἐν ταῖς ἡλικίαις (Polyb. ii 24).

[1056] Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. p. 411.

[1057] p. 72.

[1058] Beloch _der Italische Bund_ p. 78.

[1059] p. 73.

[1060] The change is put by tradition at the time of the siege of Veii (403 B.C., Liv. v. 7 “quibus census equester erat, equi publici non erant adsignati ... senatum adeunt factaque dicendi potestate equis se suis stipendia facturos promittunt”). Livy here assumes a census as existing for the _equites equo publico_, but it is questionable whether it was not transferred from these new _equites_ (_equo privato_ as they are called by modern historians) to the old equestrian centuries.

[1061] Polyb. vi. πλουτίνδην αὐτῶν γεγενημένης ὑπὸ τοῦ τιμητοῦ τῆς ἐκλογῆς.

[1062] There is no direct authority for this particular _census_ earlier than the Principate. The fact that a _census_, approximating to or identical with the equestrian, was required for _judices_ under the Gracchan law, and the specification that these should not be senators or members of senatorial families, led to these judges being called “knights.” They were selected from a class practically identical with that of the _equites equo privato_.

[1063] Cic. _pro Cluent._ 48, 134.

[1064] Suet. _Claud._ 16.

[1065] Val. Max. ii. 9, 7.

[1066] Cic. _de Rep._ iv. 2, 2. So Pompeius, a consul who had never been a senator (70 B.C.), claims and obtains his discharge before he enters on his office (Plut. _Pomp._ 22).

[1067] Plut. _C. Gracch._ 2. See p. 184.

[1068] Liv. xxvii. 11 (209 B.C.) “(Censores) addiderunt acerbitati (the deprivation of the public horse) etiam tempus, ne praeterita stipendia procederent eis, quae equo publico meruerant, sed dena stipendia equis privatis facerent.”

[1069] Gell. iv. 12; Festus p. 108.

[1070] Cic. _pro Cluent._ 48, 134; Liv. xxix. 37. Removal from the ranks is described as a deprivation of the horse (_adimere equum_, Liv. xxiv. 18, xli. 2, 7).

[1071] A fragment of a censorian edict of 92 B.C. directed against the “Latini rhetores” has been preserved. It contains the words “Haec nova, quae praeter consuetudinem ac morem majorum fiunt, neque placent neque recta videntur” (Suet. _de Clar. Rhet._ 1; Gell. xv. 11, 2).

[1072] “Judex domesticus,” “domesticus magistratus” (Sen. _Controv._ ii. 3; _de Benef._ iii. 11).

[1073] Cic. _de Rep._ iv. 6, 16 “Nec vero mulieribus praefectus praeponatur, qui apud Graecos creari solet; sed sit censor qui viros doceat moderari uxoribus.”

[1074] Dionys. xx. 13.

[1075] p. 55.

[1076] Dionys. l.c.

[1077] Festus p. 344.

[1078] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7 “coelibes esse prohibento.”

[1079] Val. Max. ii. 9, 1 “Camillus et Postumius censores aera poenae nomine eos, qui ad senectutem coelibes pervenerant, in aerarium deferre jusserunt.”

[1080] Liv. xxxix. 19.

[1081] Cic. _Phil._ ii. 28, 69.

[1082] Val. Max. ii. 9, 2 “M. Val. Maximus et C. Junius Brutus Bubulcus censores ... L. Annium senatu moverunt, quod, quam virginem in matrimonium duxerat, repudiasset, nullo amicorum in consilio adhibito.”

[1083] Plin. _H. N._ xviii. 3, 11.

[1084] Plut. _Ti. Gracch._ 14; Val. Max. ii. 9, 4. For excessive taxation imposed on articles of luxury see Liv. xxxix. 44; Plut. _Cat. Maj._ 18; and p. 221.

[1085] Cf. Gell. v. 13 “M. Cato in oratione, quam dixit apud censores in Lentulum, ita scripsit: ‘quod majores sanctius habuere defendi pupillos quam clientem non fallere.’”

[1086] Greenidge _Infamia in Roman Law_ p. 67.

[1087] Even amateur performances might call down the _nota_. See Suet. _Dom._ 8 (Domitian) “suscepta correctione morum ... quaestorium virum, quod gesticulandi saltandique studio teneretur, movit senatu.”

[1088] The _lex Julia Municipalis_ excludes them, like actors, from the municipal senate; the _lex Acilia repetundarum_ from the bench of _judices_.

[1089] Suet. _Aug._ 39 “notavitque aliquos quod, pecunias levioribus usuris mutuati, graviori foenore collocassent.”

[1090] Plut. _Cat. Maj._ 17; _C. Gracch._ 2.

[1091] Gell. xiv. 7 “opus etiam censorium fecisse existimatos, per quos eo tempore (i.e. at an unlawful time) senatus consultum factum esset.”

[1092] Cic. _de Div._ i. 16, 29 “Appius ... censor C. Ateium (tribune 55 B.C.) notavit, quod ementitum auspicia subscriberet.”

[1093] Val. Max. ii. 9, 5 “M. autem Antonius et L. Flaccus censores (97 B.C.) Duronium senatu moverunt, quod legem de coercendis conviviorum sumptibus latam tribunus plebi abrogaverat.”

[1094] Cic. _pro Cluent._ 42, 119; 43, 121; Suet. _Dom._ 8.

[1095] Liv. xxiv. 18; xxvii. 11 and 25.

[1096] In 204 B.C. the censor M. Livius disfranchised for the purposes of the _comitia centuriata_ (_aerarios reliquit_) thirty-four out of the thirty-five tribes “quod et innocentem se condemnassent et condemnatum consulem et censorem fecissent” (Liv. xxix. 37).

[1097] _Lex Jul Munic._ l. 120.

[1098] Cic. _de Off._ iii. 31, 111 “indicant (the sanctity of the oath in former times) notiones animadversionesque censorum, qui nulla de re diligentius quam de jure jurando judicabant.”

[1099] To this form of disqualification the name “mediate _infamia_” has been given by modern jurists.

[1100] Cic. _pro Cluent._ 42, 120 “quos autem ipsi L. Gellius et Cn. Lentulus duo censores ... furti et captarum pecuniarum nomine notaverunt, ii non modo in senatum redierunt. sed etiam illarum ipsarum rerum judiciis absoluti sunt.”

[1101] Liv. xxix. 37 (in 204 B.C., Claudius Nero) “M. Livium (his colleague), quia populi judicio esset damnatus, equum vendere jussit.”

[1102] It enacted “ut quem populus damnasset cuive imperium abrogasset in senatu ne esset” (Ascon. _in Cornelian._ p. 78).

[1103] Dio Cass. xxxvi. 21.

[1104] Liv. xlv. 15 “omnes iidem ab utroque et tribu remoti et aerarii facti”; xliv. 16 “tribu quoque is motus et aerarius factus”; xxvii. 11; xxix. 37 “aerarios reliquit.”

[1105] See Greenidge _Infamia in Roman Law_ pp. 106-110. Mommsen (_Staatsr._ ii. pp. 402 ff.) makes the expressions _tribu movere_ and _in aerarios referre_ identical after 312 B.C. and interprets both as signifying the removal from a higher to a lower tribe.

[1106] Liv. i. 44; Dionys. iv. 22.

[1107] At each _lustrum vota_ were offered “quae in proximum lustrum suscipi mos est” (Suet. _Aug._ 97). Before the censorship of Scipio Aemilianus it had been the custom to pray “ut populi Romani res meliores amplioresque facerent”; after it, on his initiative, “ut eas perpetuo incolumes servent” (Val. Max. iv. 1, 10).

[1108] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 19, 50 and 51; 29, 81. The leases were sometimes of considerable duration (Hyginus p. 116 Lachm. “Ex hoste capti agri postquam divisi sunt per centurias ... qui superfuerunt agri vectigalibus subjecti sunt, alii per annos [quinos], alii per annos centenos pluresve: finito illo tempore iterum veneunt locanturque ita ut vectigalibus est consuetudo”).

[1109] e.g. a _lex censoria_ enjoined that not more than five thousand workmen should be employed in the gold mines of Vercellae by the contractor who worked them (Plin. _H.N._ xxxiii. 78).

[1110] The jurists inform us that this is the true sense of _publicanus_; the _conductores_ are only _publicanorum loco_ (_Dig._ 39, 4, 12, 13). In common parlance, however, both are _publicani_, and this usage is etymologically justifiable, since they are both concerned with a _publicum_, a word which denotes state revenue and state service (_Dig._ 39, 4, 1; Tac. _Ann._ xiii. 51; Liv. xxiii. 49, 1).

[1111] _Vectigal_ (ἀποφορά Plut. _Ti. Gracch._ 8; cf. App. _B.C._ i. 7). In the case of pasture land it was called _scriptura_ (Festus p. 833).

[1112] _Lex agraria_ l. 85 “ex lege dicta, quam ... censores ... deixerunt, publicano dare oportuit.”

[1113] Cic. _in Verr._ ii. 26, 63; 60, 147; iii. 7, 18.

[1114] ib. iii. 6, 12 and 14.

[1115] Polyb. vi. 17. The Senate can συμπτώματος γενομένου κουφίσαι καὶ τὸ παράπαν ἀδυνάτου τινὸς συμβάντος ἀπολῦσαι τῆς ἐργωνίας. Cf. the section on the Senate’s control of property. In 169 and 59 B.C. we find the people releasing from an oppressive contract (Liv. xliii. 16; App. _B.C._ ii. 13).

[1116] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 7 “templa, vias, aquas ... tuento”; _ad Fam._ xiii. 11, 1 “sarta tecta (i.e. the repairs of walls and roofs) aedium sacrarum locorumque communium tueri.”

[1117] Cf. Liv. xxxix. 44 “ultro tributa infimis (pretiis) locaverunt.”

[1118] ib. xliv. 16 “ad opera publica facienda cum eis (censoribus) dimidium ex vectigalibus ejus anni attributum ex senatus consulto a quaestoribus esset”; xl. 46 “censoribus deinde postulantibus ut pecuniae summa sibi, qua in opera publica uterentur, attribueretur, vectigal annuum decretum est.”

[1119] _Lex Jul. Munic._ l. 73; Liv. xxxix. 44 (quoted n. 2).

[1120] Mommsen (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 446) takes the phrase to mean something “voluntarily granted” by the Senate to the magistrate.

[1121] Liv. xxxix. 44. The later tendency, however, was for such public rights to be protected by the praetor’s interdicts.

[1122] ib. xl. 51 “complura sacella publica quae fuerant occupata a privatis publica sacraque ut essent paterentque populo curarunt.”

[1123] ib. xliii. 16 “censores ad pignora capienda miserunt multamque pro contione privato dixerunt.”

[1124] _Lex agraria_ ll. 35, 36.

[1125] ib.

[1126] p. 208.

[1127] p. 93.

[1128] p. 94.

[1129] pp. 95 ff.

[1130] p. 190.

[1131] p. 162.

[1132] p. 126.

[1133] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 7, 17 “toties legibus agrariis curatores constituti sunt triumviri quinqueviri decemviri.” Cf. ib. ii. 12, 31 “eodem jure ... quo habuerunt (pullarios) tresviri lege Sempronia.”

[1134] ib. ii. 7, 16 “jubet enim (the agrarian law of Rullus) tribunum plebis, qui eam legem tulerit, creare decemviros per tribus septemdecim, ut, quem novem tribus fecerint, is decemvir sit.”

[1135] pp. 174, 177.

[1136] The nature of the Sullan limitations is unknown. Caesar says “Sullam nudata omnibus rebus tribunicia potestate tamen intercessionem liberam reliquisse” (_B.C._ i. 7), and Cicero “Sullam probo, qui tribunis plebis sua lege injuriae faciendae potestatem ademerit, auxilii ferendi reliquerit” (_de Leg._ iii. 9, 22). He probably formulated cases in which it could not be employed. There are instances of the tribunician veto between 81 B.C. and 70 B.C., the date of the restoration of the tribune’s power. See Momms. _Staatsr._ ii p. 308 nn. 1 and 2.

[1137] p. 162.

[1138] p. 182.

[1139] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 6.

[1140] Festus p. 233; Dio Cass. liv. 26.

[1141] Liv. _Ep._ xi.

[1142] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 6; Sall. _Cat._ 55.

[1143] Val. Max. vi. 1, 10; Cic. _pro Cluent._ 13, 38.

[1144] Ascon. _in Milon._ p. 38.

[1145] Plaut. _Amph._ l. 1, 3.

[1146] Pompon. in _Dig._ 1, 2, 2, 30. The full official title which first appears in 44 B.C. is _a_(_uro_) _a_(_rgento_) _a_(_ere_) _f_(_lando_) _f_(_eriundo_). For this title and its variants see Momms. _Staatsr._ ii. p. 602 n. 3.

[1147] Momms. _Staatsr._ ii p. 601.

[1148] Verbally the second title might, and perhaps should, refer to the _viae_ of Italy. But the office is probably an urban magistracy. See ib. p. 604.

[1149] Liv. iii. 55.

[1150] Cic. _de Leg._ iii. 3, 6. For their jurisdiction in cases of freedom in the Ciceronian period see Cic. _pro Caec._ 39, 97; _pro Domo_ 29, 78.

[1151] Festus p. 233.

[1152] p. 207.

[1153] This was the case with C. Claudius Pulcher (_C.I.L._ i. p. 279), C. Junius (Cic. _pro Cluent._ 29, 79), and C. Julius Caesar (Suet. _Caes._ 11).

[1154] p. 189.

[1155] Cic. _pro Cluent._ 33, 91.

[1156] Mommsen inclines to think that the office followed as a matter of course on the aedileship (_Staatsr._ ii. p. 590).

[1157] p. 155.

[1158] Liv. ix. 30.

[1159] p. 234.

[1160] p. 43.

[1161] p. 102.

[1162] p. 126.

[1163] Cic. _pro Caec._ 33, 95; cf. _pro Domo_ 40, 106 “Quae tua fuit consecratio? Tuleram, inquit, ut mihi liceret. Quid? Non exceperas ut, si quid jus non esset rogari, ne esset rogatum?”

[1164] Valerius Probus gives the formula which emphasises this religious aspect of the saving clause. It was SI QUID SACRI SANCTI EST QUOD NON JURE SIT ROGATUM, EJUS HAC LEGE NIHIL ROGATUR.

[1165] See p. 107.

[1166] Cic. _pro Domo_ 20, 53 “quae (est) sententia Caeciliae legis et Didiae nisi haec, ne populo necesse sit in conjunctis rebus compluribus aut id quod nolit accipere aut id quod velit repudiare?” The principle had existed as early as the _lex Acilia Repetundarum_ of 122 (l. 72). See Mommsen _Staatsr._ iii. p. 336.

[1167] Liv. viii. 23.

[1168] ib. ix. 42. Compare, however, x. 22 (296 B.C.), where the _plebiscitum_ and the _senatus consultum_ are both mentioned in connexion with the prorogation of the command of L. Volumnius. For the recognition of the _imperium_ of the consul for a single day to enable him to triumph, see p. 158.

[1169] Liv. xxxviii. 54-60.

[1170] ib. xlii. 21 and 22.

[1171] Cic. _de Fin._ ii. 16, 54.

[1172] The _quaestio Mamilia_ of 110 B.C. (Sall. _Jug._ 40).

[1173] p. 14.

[1174] The _lex Plautia Papiria_ (Cic. _pro Arch._ 4, 7; see p. 311) was the work of two tribunes.

[1175] Cic. _pro Balbo_ 21, 48 “lege Appuleia ... qua lege Saturninus C. Mario tulerat, ut in singulas colonias ternos cives Romanos facere posset.”

[1176] ib. 8, 19 “lege quam L. Gellius Cn. Cornelius (coss. 72 B.C.) ex senatus sententia tulerunt ... videmus satis esse sanctum ut cives Romani sint ii, quos Cn. Pompeius de consilii sententia singillatim civitate donaverit.”

[1177] Val. Max. v. 2, 8 “(C. Marius) duas ... Camertium cohortes mira virtute vim Cimbrorum sustinentis in ipsa acie adversus condicionem foederis civitate donavit.”

[1178] Momms. _Staatsr._ iii. p. 135 n. 5.

[1179] Cic. _pro Caec._ 35, 101.

[1180] Liv. xxvi. 33 (speech of M. Atilius Regulus) “‘Per senatum agi de Campanis, qui cives Romani sunt, injussu populo non video posse. Idque et apud majores nostros in Satricanis factum est (319 B.C.) cum defecissent, ut M. Antistius tribunus plebis prius rogationem ferret scisceretque plebs uti senatui de Satricanis sententiae dicendae jus esset. Itaque censeo cum tribunis plebis agendum esse ut eorum unus pluresve rogationem ferant ad plebem qua nobis statuendi de Campanis jus fiat.’ L. Atilius tribunus plebis ex auctoritate senatus plebem in haec verba rogavit ... Plebes sic jussit, ‘Quod senatus juratus, maxima pars, censeat, qui adsidetis, id volumus jubemusque.’”

[1181] ib. xxxviii. 36 “edocti populi esse, non senatus, jus suffragii quibus velit impertiri, destiterunt incepto.”

[1182] p. 229.

[1183] Liv. xlv. 15 (169 B.C.; on the proposal of the censor Sempronius to disfranchise the freedmen, his colleague Claudius) “negabat ... suffragii lationem injussu populi censorem cuiquam homini, nedum ordini universo adimere posse: neque enim, si tribu movere posset, quod sit nihil aliud quam mutare jubere tribum, ideo omnibus quinque et triginta tribubus emovere posse, id est civitatem libertatemque eripere.”

[1184] In Liv. vii. 16 (357 B.C.) we find the account of the creation of the _vicesima manumissionis_ by the _comitia tributa populi_.

[1185] This change was effected by a _lex Aebutia_ (Gell. xvi. 10, 8; Gaius iv. 30).

[1186] p. 205.

[1187] The fullest _praescriptio_ which has been preserved is that of the _lex Quinctia de aquaeductibus_, a consular law of 9 B.C. (Frontinus _de aquaeductibus_ 129). It runs: “T. Quinctius Crispinus consul populum jure rogavit populusque jure scivit in foro pro rostris aedis divi Juli pr(idie) [k] Julias. Tribus Sergia principium fuit, pro tribu Sex.... L. f. Virro [primus scivit].”

[1188] Ulpian _Reg. praef._ 2 “Minus quam perfecta lex est, quae vetat aliquid fieri et, si factum sit, non rescindit, sed poenam injungit ei qui contra legem fecit.” The Licinio-Sextian agrarian law of 367 was apparently of this kind.

[1189] Macrob. _Comm. in Somn. Scip._ ii. 17, 13 “inter leges quoque illa imperfecta dicitur, in qua nulla deviantibus poena sancitur.”

[1190] Cic. _ad Att._ iii. 23, 2 “alteram caput est tralaticium de impunitate SI QUID CONTRA ALIAS LEGES EJUS LEGIS ERGO FACTUM SIT.”

[1191] Ulpian _op. cit._ 3 “Lex aut rogatur, id est, fertur; aut abrogatur, id est, prior lex tollitur; aut derogatur, id est, pars primae (legis) tollitur; aut subrogatur, id est, adjicitur aliquid primae legi; aut obrogatur, id est, mutatur aliquid ex prima lege.” Cf. the clause in a law cited by Cicero (_ad Att._ iii. 23, 3) “SI QUID IN HAC ROGATIONE SCRIPTUM EST, QUOD PER LEGES PLEBISVE SCITA PROMULGARE, ABROGARE, DEROGARE, OBROGARE SINE FRAUDE SUA NON LICEAT.”

[1192] Cic. l.c. 23, 2 “neque enim ulla (lex) est, quae non ipsa se saepiat difficultate abrogationis. Sed, cum lex abrogatur, illud ipsum abrogatur, quo modo eam abrogari [_non_] oporteat.”

[1193] p. 239.

[1194] See the section on the Senate.

[1195] Livy describes a controversy whether from this point of view an armistice (_indutiae_) rested on a level with a _pax_: (iv. 30) “cum Veientibus ... indutiae, ... non pax facta ... ante diem rebellaverant ... controversia inde fuit utrum populi jussu indiceretur bellum an satis esset senatus consultum. Pervicere tribuni ... ut Quinctius consul de bello ad populum ferret: omnes centuriae jussere.”

[1196] Polyb. vi. 14 ὑπὲρ εἰρήνης οὖτος (ὁ δῆμος) βουλεύεται καὶ πολέμου.

[1197] Mommsen _Staatsr._ iii. p. 343.

[1198] See the section on the Senate.

[1199] Polyb. i. 62 (agreement between Lutatius Catulus and the Carthaginians in 241 B.C.) ἐπὶ τοῖσδε φιλίαν εἶναι Καρχηδονίοις καὶ Ῥωμαίοις, ἐὰν καὶ τῷ δήμῳ τῶν Ῥωμαίων συνδοκῇ. The people rejected the treaty, but it was subsequently maintained that, but for this saving clause, it would have been binding (ib. iii. 29).

[1200] ib. vi. 14 καὶ μὴν περὶ συμμαχίας καὶ διαλύσεως καὶ συνθηκῶν οὖτος (ὁ δῆμος) ἐστιν ὁ βεβαιῶν ἒκαστα τούτων καὶ κύρια ποιῶν ἢ τοὐναντίον.

[1201] Liv. xxix. 12 (205 B.C., peace with Philip of Macedon) “jusserunt ... omnes tribus”; xxx. 43 (201 B.C., peace with Carthage) “De pace ... omnes tribus jusserunt”; xxxiii. 25 (196 B.C., peace with Philip of Macedon) “ea rogatio in Capitolio ad plebem lata est. Omnes quinque et triginta tribus, uti rogas jusserunt.”

[1202] So on the conclusion of the second Punic war (Liv. xxx. 43 “M’. Acilius et Q. Minucius tribuni plebis ad populum tulerunt ‘Vellent juberentne senatum decernere ut cum Carthaginiensibus pax fieret, et quem eam pacem dare quemque ex Africa exercitum deportare juberent’”).

[1203] See _lex Antonia de Termessibus_ (Bruns _Fontes_).

[1204] p. 47.

[1205] p. 187.

[1206] p. 63.

[1207] See below on the competence of the _concilium plebis_.

[1208] See Momms. _Staatsr._ i. p. 195; ii. p. 618.

[1209] See p. 161.

[1210] p. 169.

[1211] p. 211.

[1212] p. 161.

[1213] _Anquisitio_ (a variant of the _quaestio_ of the magistrate when he investigates on his own authority) perhaps means an “inquiry on both sides,” i.e. through accusation and defence (Lange _Röm. Alt._ ii. p. 470; cf. Festus p. 22 “anquirere est circum quaerere”).

[1214] Liv. ii. 52 (the tribunes) “cum capitis anquisissent, duo milia aeris damnato multam edixerunt”; xxvi. 3 (a pecuniary penalty having been proposed during the first two days) “tertio ... tanta ira accensa est ut capite anquirendum contio subclamaret.”

[1215] Cic. _pro Dom._ 17, 45 “cum tam moderata judicia populi sint a majoribus constituta ... ne inprodicta die quis accusetur, ut ter ante magistratus accuset intermissa die quam multam irroget aut judicet, quarta sit accusatio trinum nundinum prodicta die, quo die judicium sit futurum.” Cf. App. _B.C._ i. 74.

[1216] Cic. l.c. “si qua res illum diem aut auspiciis aut excusatione sustulit, tota causa judiciumque sublatum sit.”

[1217] Dio Cass. xxxvii. 27.

[1218] Cic. _pro Domo_ 82, 86 “at vero ... Kaeso ille Quinctius (cf. Liv. iii. 13) et M. Furius Camillus et M. Servilius Ahala (cf. Liv. iv. 16, 21) ... populi incitati vim iracundiamque subierunt; damnatique comitiis centuriatis cum in exilium profugissent, rursus ab eodem populo placato sunt in suam pristinam dignitatem restituti.”

[1219] Cic. _Brut._ 34, 128; _post Red. in Sen._ 15, 38.

[1220] App. _B.C._ i 31.

[1221] Cic. _pro Planc._ 28, 69; _post Red. in Sen._ 15, 38.

[1222] Cic. _ad Att._ iv. 1, 4.

[1223] _Auct. ad Herenn._ ii. 28, 45.

[1224] Caes. _B.C._ iii. 1 “praetoribus tribunisque plebis rogationes ad populum ferentibus ... in integrum restituit.” Cf. Suet. _Caes._ 41; Dio Cass, xliii. 27.

[1225] “de alea condemnatum” (Cic. _Phil._ ii. 23, 56), that is, probably, under the _lex Cornelia de falsis_ (Rein _Criminalrecht_ p. 833).

[1226] See p. 248.

[1227] Plut. _Mar._ 43; cf. Vell. ii. 21; App. _B.C._ i. 70.

[1228] App. _B.C._ iii. 95.

[1229] Vell. ii. 58; cf. Cic. _Phil._ i. 1, 1.

[1230] Dio Cass. xlix. 43.

[1231] pp. 166, 179.

[1232] p. 239.

[1233] When Varro says (_L.L._ vi. 30) “magistratus vitio creatus nihilo secius magistratus” he is reflecting the practical procedure—hardly the constitutional theory, unless the _dictum_ implies that repeal is impossible because unnecessary, and that there is no authority for determining the nullity of the election.

[1234] Cicero says, with respect to the law exiling him, that there was some point in its being held invalid as a _privilegium_, “sed multo est melius abrogari” (_ad Att._ iii. 15, 5).

[1235] Laelius Felix ap. Gell. xv. 27, 5 “Cum ex generibus hominum suffragium feratur, ‘curiata’ comitia esse, cum ex censu et aetate ‘centuriata,’ cum ex regionibus et locis, ‘tributa.’”

[1236] How easily one _comitia_ could melt into another is shown by the words of Cicero [_ad Fam._ vii. 30 (44 B.C.)] “Ille autem (Caesar), qui comitiis tributis esset auspicatus, centuriata habuit.”

[1237] See Appendix on the _comitia tributa_.

[1238] p. 49.

[1239] Messala ap. Gell. xiii. 15, 4 “Minoribus creatis magistratibus tributis comitiis magistratus, sed justus curiata datur lege.”

[1240] Dio Cass. xxxix. 19.

[1241] ib. xli. 43.

[1242] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 12, 30 “consuli, si legem curiatam non habet, attingere rem militarem non licet.”

[1243] Sulla’s law had said that the magistrate should retain _imperium_ until he re-entered the city, apparently without mentioning the _lex curiata_. App. Claudius, consul for 54 B.C., who had been prevented by the tribunician veto from getting his _lex curiata_ passed, presumed on this silence and said “legem curiatam consuli ferri opus esse, necesse non esse; se, quoniam ex senatus consulto provinciam haberet, lege Cornelia imperium habiturum quoad in urbem introisset” (Cic. _ad Fam._ i. 9, 25).

[1244] Cic. _de Leg. Agr._ ii. 12, 31.

[1245] p. 26.

[1246] Gell. xv. 27, 1 “‘calata’ comitia esse, quae pro conlegio pontificum habentur aut regis aut flaminum inaugurandorum causa. Eorum autem alia esse ‘curiata,’ alia ‘centuriata’ ... Isdem comitiis, quae ‘calata’ appellari diximus, et sacrorum detestatio et testamenta fieri solebant.” It is not known what particular acts were reserved for the “comitia calata” assembled _centuriatim_; Mommsen thinks the inauguration of the Flamen Martialis outside the city (_Staatsr._ iii. p. 307).

[1247] p. 107.

[1248] pp. 107, 246.

[1249] p. 244.

[1250] Liv. i. 43 “Nec mirari oportet hunc ordinem, qui nunc est post expletas quinque et triginta tribus duplicate earum numero centuriis juniorum seniorumque, ad institutam ab Servio Tullio summam non convenire.” Cf. Dionys. iv. 21. The description of Cicero (_de Rep._