Chapter 2

80. So also _stjarna_ (star) pl. _stjǫrnur_, _kirkja_ (church), gen. plurals _stjarna_, _kirkna_.

_Sg. Nom._ ęlli (_old age_) _Acc._ ęlli _Dat._ ęlli _Gen._ ęlli

81. So also _glęði_ (joy) and many abstract nouns.

82. _lygi_ (falsehood) has pl. _lygar_; so also _gǫ̈rsimi_ (precious thing).

Adjectives

83. Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak forms.

Strong Adjectives

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ ung-r (_young_) ung-t ung _Acc._ ung-an ung-t ung-a _Dat._ ung-um ung-u ung-ri _Gen._ ung-s ung-s ung-rar

_Pl. Nom._ ung-ir ung ung-ar _Acc._ ung-a ung ung-ar _Dat._ ung-um ung-um ung-um _Gen._ ung-ra ung-ra ung-ra

84. So also _fagr_ (fair), fem. _fǫgr_, neut. _fagrt_.

85. Some insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _nȳr_ (new), _nȳjum_, _nȳjan_.

86. Some insert _v_ before a vowel: _hār_ (high), _hāvan_, _dökkr_ (dark), _dökkvir_, _kykr_ (alive), _kykvir_.

87. The _t_ of the neut. is doubled after a long vowel: _nȳtt_, _hātt_. Monosyllables in _ð_, _dd_, _tt_ form their neut. in _-tt_: _breiðr_ (broad), _breitt_; _leiddr_ (led), _leitt_. _gōðr_ (good) has neut. _gott_. _sannr_ (true) has neut. _satt_. In unaccented syllables or if a cons. precedes, _tt_ is shortened to _t_: _kallaðr_ (called), _kallat_; _blindr_ (blind), _blint_, _harðr_ (hard), _hart_, _fastr_ (firm), _fast_.

88. _l_ and _n_ assimilate a following _r_: _gamall_ (old), fem. _gǫmul_, fem. acc. _gamla_, dat. _gamalli_. _vǣnn_ (beautiful), gen. pl. _vænna_.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ mikill (_great_) mikit mikil _Acc._ mikinn mikit mikla _Dat._ miklum miklu mikilli _Gen._ mikils mikils mikillar

_Pl. Nom._ miklir mikil miklar _Acc._ mikla mikil miklar _Dat._ miklum miklum miklum _Gen._ mikilla mikilla mikilla

89. So also _lītill_ (little).

90. Dissyllables in _-inn_ have _-it_ in the neut., and _-inn_ in the masc. sg. acc.: _tīginn_ (distinguished), _tīgit_, _tīginn_, pl. _tīgnīr_. So also _kominn_ (come).

91.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ annarr (_other_) annat ǫnnur _Acc._ annan annat aðra _Dat._ ǫðrum ǫðru annarri _Gen._ annars annars annarrar

_Pl. Nom._ aðrir ǫnnur aðrar _Acc._ aðra ǫnnur aðrar _Dat._ ǫðrum ǫðrum ǫðrum _Gen._ annarra annarra annarra

Weak Adjectives

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ ung-i ung-a ung-a _Acc._ ung-a ung-a ung-u _Dat._ ung-a ung-a ung-u _Gen._ ung-a ung-a ung-u

_Pl. Nom._ ung-u ung-u ung-u _Acc._ ung-u ung-u ung-u _Dat._ ung-u ung-u ung-u _Gen._ ung-u ung-u ung-u

92. So also _fagri_, _hāvi_, _mikli_, etc.

_Sg. Nom._ yngri (_younger_) yngra yngri _Acc._ yngra yngra yngri _Dat._ yngra yngra yngri _Gen._ yngra yngra yngri

_Pl. Nom._ yngri yngri yngri _Acc._ yngri yngri yngri _Dat._ yngrum yngrum yngrum _Gen._ yngri yngri yngri

93. So also all comparatives, such as _meiri_ (greater), and pres. partic. when used as adjectives, such as _gefandi_ (giving), dat. pl. _gefǫndum_.

Comparison

94. (1) with _-ari_, _-astr_: _rīkr_ (powerful), _rīkari_, _rīkastr_; _gǫfugr_ (distinguished), _gǫfgari_, _gǫfgastr_.

95. (2) with _-ri_, _-str_ and mutation: _langr_ (long), _lęngri_, _lęngstr_; _stōrr_ (big), _stœrri_, _stœrstr_; _ungr_ (young), _yngri_, _yngstr_.

96. The following are irregular:

gamall (_old_) ęllri ęlztr gōðr (_good_) bętri bęztr illr (_bad_) vęrri vęrstr lītill (_little_) minni minstr margr (_many_) fleiri flestr mikill (_great_) meiri mestr

Numerals

97.

CARDINAL ORDINAL

1. einn (_one_) fyrstr (_first_) 2. tveir annarr 3. þrīr þriði 4. fjōrir fjōrði 5. fimm fimmti 6. sex sētti 7. sjau sjaundi 8. ātta ātti 9. nīu nīundi 10. tīu tīundi 11. ellifu ellifti 12. tōlf tōlfti 13. þrettān þrettāndi 14. fjōrtān 15. fimmtān 16. sextān 17. sjautān 18. ātjān 19. nītjān 20. tuttugu 21. einn ok tuttugu, etc. 30. þrīr tigir, etc. 100. tīu tigir 110. ellifu tigir 120. hundrað 1200. þūsund

_einn_ is declined like other adjectives:--

98.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ einn eitt ein _Acc._ einn eitt eina _Dat._ einum einu einni _Gen._ eins eins einnar

It also has a pl. _einir_, _einar_, _ein_; gen. _einna_, etc. in the sense of 'some.'

The next three show various irregularities.

99.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ tveir tvau tvær _Acc._ tvā tvau tvær _Dat._ tveim tveim tveim _Gen._ tvęggja tvęggja tvęggja

Similarly _bāðir_ (both):

100.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ bāðir bæði bāðar _Acc._ bāða bæði bāðar _Dat._ bāðum bāðum bāðum _Gen._ bęggja bęggja bęggja

101.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ þrīr þrjū þrjār _Acc._ þrjā þrjū þrjār _Dat._ þrim þrim þrim _Gen._ þriggja þriggja þriggja

102.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ fjōrir fjogur fjōrar _Acc._ fjōra fjogur fjōrar _Dat._ fjōrum fjōrum fjōrum _Gen._ fjogurra fjogurra fjogurra

103. The others are indeclinable up to _þrīr tigir_, etc.; the _tigir_ being declined regularly as a plural strong _u_-masculine _tigir_, _tigu_, _tigum_, _tiga_.

104. _hundrað_ is a strong neut.: _tvau hundruð_ (240), _tveim hundruðum_, etc. It governs the gen. (as also does _þūsund_): _fimm hundruð gōlfa_, 'five (six) hundred chambers.'

105. _þūsund_ is a strong _ir_-feminine: _tvær þūsundir_ (2400).

106. _hundrað_ and _þūsund_ are rarely = 100 and 1000.

107. Of the ordinals _fyrstr_ and _annarr_ (§ 91) are strong, the others weak adjectives. _þriði_ inserts a _j_: _þriðja_, etc.

Pronouns

108.

Personal

_Sg. Nom._ ek (_I_) þū (_thou_) -- _Acc._ mik þik sik (_oneself_) _Dat._ mēr þēr sēr _Gen._ mīn þīn sīn

_Dual Nom._ vit it -- _Acc._ okkr ykkr sik _Dat._ okkr ykkr sēr _Gen._ okkar ykkar sīn

_Pl. Nom._ vēr (_we_) þēr (_ye_) -- _Acc._ oss yðr sik (_oneselves_) _Dat._ oss yðr sēr _Gen._ vār yðar sīn

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hann (_he_) þat (_it_) hon (_she_) _Acc._ hann þat hana _Dat._ honum þvī hęnni _Gen._ hans þess hęnnar

_Pl. Nom._ þeir (_they_) þau þær _Acc._ þā þau þær _Dat._ þeim þeim þeim _Gen._ þeira þeira þeira

109. _ek_ was often suffixed to its verb, especially in poetry, being sometimes added twice over: _mætta-k_ (I might), _sā-k-a-k_ (I saw not; _a_='not'). So also _þū_: _er-tu_ (art thou), _skalt-u_ (shalt thou) = _*skalt-tu_.

Possessive

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ minn (_my_) mitt mīn _Acc._ minn mitt mīna _Dat._ mīnum mīnu minni _Gen._ mīns mīns minnar

_Pl. Nom._ mīnir mīn mīnar _Acc._ mīna mīn mīnar _Dat._ mīnum mīnum mīnum _Gen._ minna minna minna

110. So also _þinn_ (thy), _sinn_ (his, etc., reflexive).

111. _vārr_, _vārt_, _vār_ (our) is regular: acc. masc. _vārn_, masc. plur. _vārir_, _vāra_, _vārum_, _vārra_, etc.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ yðarr (_your_) yðart yður _Acc._ yðarn yðart yðra _Dat._ yðrum yðru yðarri _Gen._ yðars yðars yðarrar

_Pl. Nom._ yðrir yður yðrar _Acc._ yðra yður yðrar _Dat._ yðrum yðrum yðrum _Gen._ yðarra yðarra yðarra

112. So also _okkarr_ (our two) and _ykkarr_ (your two).

113. _hans_ (his), _þess_ (its), _hęnnar_ (her), and _þeira_ (their) are indeclinable.

Demonstrative

114.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ sā (_that_) þat sū _Acc._ þann þat þā _Dat._ þeim þvī þeiri _Gen._ þess þess þeirar

_Pl. Nom._ þeir þau þær _Acc._ þā þau þær _Dat._ þeim þeim þeim _Gen._ þeira þeira þeira

115. _hinn_, _hitt_, _hin_ (that) is inflected like _minn_ (except that its vowel is short throughout): acc. masc. _hinn_, plur. masc. _hinir_, _hina_, _hinum_, _hinna_.

116.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ þessi (_this_) þetta þessi _Acc._ þenna þetta þessa _Dat._ þessum þessu þessi _Gen._ þessa þessa þessar

_Pl. Nom._ þessir þessi þessar _Acc._ þessa þessi þessar _Dat._ þessum þessum þessum _Gen._ þessa þessa þessa

Definite

The prefixed definite article is declined thus:

117.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ inn it in _Acc._ inn it ina _Dat._ inum inu inni _Gen._ ins ins innar

_Pl. Nom._ inir in inar _Acc._ ina in inar _Dat._ inum inum inum _Gen._ inna inna inna

118. When suffixed to its noun it undergoes various changes. In its monosyllabic forms it drops its vowel after a short (un-accented) vowel, as in _auga-t_ (the eye), but keeps it after a long vowel, as in _ā-in_ (the river), _trē-it_ (the tree). The dissyllabic forms drop their initial vowel almost everywhere; not, however, after the _-ar_, _-r_, of the gen. sg., nor in _męnninir_ (men, _nom._), _męnn-ina_ (men, _acc._). The _-m_ of the dat. pl. is dropped before the suffixed _-num_.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ fiskr-inn skip-it gjǫf-in _Acc._ fisk-inn skip-it gjǫf-ina _Dat._ fiski-num skipi-nu gjǫf-inni _Gen._ fisks-ins skips-ins gjafar-innar

_Pl. Nom._ fiskar-nir skip-in gjafar-nar _Acc._ fiska-na skip-in gjafar-nar _Dat._ fisku-num skipu-num gjǫfu-num _Gen._ fiska-nna skipa-nna gjafa-nna

_Sg. Nom._ bogi-nn auga-t tunga-n _Acc._ boga-nn auga-t tungu-na _Dat._ boga-num auga-nu tungu-nni _Gen._ boga-ns auga-ns tungu-nnar

_Pl. Nom._ bogar-nir augu-n tungur-nar _Acc._ boga-na augu-n tungur-nar _Dat._ bogu-num augu-num tungnu-num _Gen._ boga-nna augna-nna tungna-nna

Relative

119. The ordinary relative pron. is the indeclinable _er_, often preceded by _sā_: _sā er_ = he who, who, _sū er_ who fem.

Interrogative

120. The neut. _hvat_ has gen. _hvess_, dat. _hvī_, which last is chiefly used as an adverb = 'why.'

121.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hvārr (_which hvārt hvār of two_) _Acc._ hvārn hvārt hvāra _Dat._ hvārum hvāru hvārri _Gen._ hvārs hvārs hvārrar

_Pl. Nom._ hvārir hvār hvārar _Acc._ hvāra hvār hvārar _Dat._ hvārum hvārum hvārum _Gen._ hvārra hvārra hvārra

122.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hvęrr (_which, hvęrt hvęr who_) _Acc._ hvęrn hvęrt hvęrja _Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrju hvęrri _Gen._ hvęrs hvęrs hvęrrar

_Pl. Nom._ hvęrir hvęr hvęrjar _Acc._ hvęrja hvęr hvęrjar _Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrjum hvęrjum _Gen._ hvęrra hvęrra hvęrra

Indefinite

123. _einn-hvęrr_, _eitthvęrt_, _einhvęr_ (some one) keeps an invariable _ein-_ in the other cases, the second element being inflected as above.

124. _sumr_ (some) is declined like an ordinary adjective.

125.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ nakkvarr nakkvat nǫkkur (_some_) _Acc._ nakkvarn nakkvat nakkvara _Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkuru nakkvarri _Gen._ nakkvars nakkvars nakkvarrar

_Pl. Nom._ nakkvarir nǫkkur nakkvarar _Acc._ nakkvara nǫkkur nakkvarar _Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkurum nǫkkurum _Gen._ nakkvarra nakkvarra nakkvarra

126.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ engi (_none, ekki engi no_) _Acc._ engan ekki enga _Dat._ engum engu engri _Gen._ engis engis engrar

_Pl. Nom._ engir engi engar _Acc._ enga engi engar _Dat._ engum engum engum _Gen._ engra engra engra

127. In _hvār-tvęggja_ (each of the two, both) the first element is declined as above, the second is left unchanged.

Verbs

128. There are two classes of verbs, _strong_ and _weak_. Strong verbs are conjugated partly by means of gradation, weak verbs by adding _ð_ (_d_, _t_).

129. The _ð_ of the 2 pl. is dropt before _þit_ (ye two) and _þēr_ (ye): _gefi þēr_, _gāfu þit_.

130. There is a middle voice, which ends in _-mk_ in the 1 pers. sg. and pl., the rest of the verb being formed by adding _sk_ to the active endings, _r_ being dropt, the resulting _ts_, _ðs_ being written _z_ (§ 36): _kvezk_ (active _kveðr_ 'says'), _þu fekkzk_ (_fekkt_ 'gottest').

131. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _gefa_ (give), which will show those endings which are common to all verbs:

Active

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Present sg._ 1. gef gef-a 2. gef-r gef-ir 3. gef-r gef-i

_pl._ 1. gef-um gef-im 2. gef-ið gef-ið 3. gef-a gef-i

_Preterite sg._ 1. gaf gæf-a 2. gaf-t gæf-ir 3. gaf gæf-i

_pl._ 1. gāf-um gæf-im 2. gāf-uð gæf-ið 3. gāf-u gæf-i

_Imperative sg._ 2 gef; _pl._ 1 gef-um, 2 gef-ið. _Participle pres._ gef-andi; _pret._ gef-inn. _Infin._ gefa.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. gef-umk gef-umk 2. gef-sk gef-isk 3. gef-sk gef-isk

_pl._ 1. gef-umk gef-imk 2. gef-izk gef-izk 3. gef-ask gef-isk

_Pret. sg._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-umk 2. gaf-zk gæf-isk 3. gaf-sk gæf-isk

_pl._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-imk 2. gāf-uzk gæf-izk 3. gāf-usk gæf-isk

_Impers. sg._ 2 gef-sk; _pl._ 1 gef-umk, 2 gef-izk. _Partic. pres._ gef-andisk; _pret._ gef-izk _neut._ _Infin._ gef-ask.

Strong Verbs

132. In the strong verbs the plur. of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. The 1 sg. pret. of the middle voice always has the vowel of the pl. pret.: _gāfumk_. The pret. subj. has the vowel of the pret. indic. plur. mutated: _skaut_ (he shot), _skutu_ (they shot), _skyti_ (he might shoot). But there is no mutation in verbs of the first conj.: _hljōpi_, inf. _hlaupa_ (leap).

133. The pres. indic. sing. mutates the root-vowel in all three persons: _ek skȳt_, _þū skȳtr_, _hann skȳtr_, infin. _skjōta_ (shoot). _e_ however is not mutated: _ek gef_, _þū gefr_. The inflectional _r_ is liable to the same modifications as the _r_ of nouns (§ 32): _skīnn_, _vęx_, infin. _skīna_ (shine), _vaxa_ (grow).

134. Verbs in _ld_ change the _d_ into _t_ in the 1, 3 sg. pret. indic. and in the imper. sg.: _helt_ (held), _halt_ (hold!), infin. _halda_. _nd_ becomes _tt_, and _ng_ becomes _kk_ under the same conditions: _binda_ (bind), _ganga_ (go), pret. _batt_, _gekk_, imper. _bitt_, _gakk_.

135. The _t_ of the 2 sg. pret. indic. is doubled after a long accented vowel: _þū sātt_ (thou sawest). If the 1 sg. pret. indic. ends in _t_ or _ð_, the 2 sg. ends in _zt_: _lēt_ (I let), _þū lēzt_, _bauð_ (I offered) _þū bauzt_.

136. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the characteristic vowels of their preterites.

137.

I. 'Fall'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

falla (_fall_) fęllr fell fellu fallinn lāta (_let_) lætr lēt lētu lātinn rāða (_advise_) ræðr rēð rēðu rāðinn heita (_call_) heitr hēt hētu heitinn halda (_hold_) hęldr helt heldu haldinn ganga (_go_) gęngr gekk gengu gęnginn fā (_get_) fær fekk fengu fęnginn ----------------- auka (_increase_) eykr jōk jōku aukinn būa (_dwell_) bȳr bjō bjoggu būinn hǫggva (_hew_) hǫggr hjō hjoggu hǫggvinn hlaupa (_leap_) hleypr hljōp hljōpu hlaupinn

138. The following have weak preterites in _r_:

grōa (_grow_) grœr gröri gröru grōinn rōa (_row_) rœr röri röru rōinn snūa (_twist_) snȳr snöri snöru snūinn

139. _heita_ in the passive sense of 'to be named, called' has a weak present: _ek heiti_, _þū heitir_.

140.

II. 'Shake'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

fara (_go_) fęrr fōr fōru farinn grafa (_dig_) gręfr grōf grōfu grafinn hlaða (_load_) hlęðr hlōð hlōðu hlaðinn vaxa (_grow_) vęx ōx ōxu vaxinn standa (_stand_) stęndr stōð stōðu staðinn aka (_drive_) ękr ōk ōku ękinn taka (_take_) tękr tōk tōku tękinn draga (_draw_) dręgr drō drōgu dręginn flā (_flay_) flær flō flōgu flęginn slā (_strike_) slær slō slōgu slęginn

141. The following have weak presents:

hęfja (_lift_) hęfr hōf hōfu hafinn deyja (_die_) deyr dō dō dāinn hlæja (_laugh_) hlær hlō hlōgu hlęginn

142.

III. 'Bind'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bresta (_burst_) brestr brast brustu brostinn hverfa (_turn_) hverfr hvarf hurfu horfinn svelga (_swallow_) svelgr svalg sulgu sōlginn verða (_become_) verðr varð urðu orðinn skjālfa (_shake_) skelfr skalf skulfu skolfinn drekka (_drink_) drekkr drakk drukku drukkinn finna (_find_) finnr fann fundu fundinn vinna (_win_) vinnr vann unnu unninn binda (_bind_) bindr batt bundu bundinn springa (_spring_) springr sprakk sprungu sprunginn stinga (_pierce_) stingr stakk stungu stunginn bregða (_pull_) bregðr brā brugðu brugðinn sökkva (_sink_) sökkr sǫkk sukku sokkinn stökkva (_spring_) stökkr stǫkk stukku stokkinn

143. The following have weak presents (which makes however no difference in their conjugation):

bręnna (_burn_) bręnnr brann brunnu brunninn ręnna (_run_) ręnnr rann runnu runninn

144.

IV. 'Bear'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bera (_carry_) berr bar bāru borinn nema (_take_) nemr nam nāmu numinn fela (_hide_) felr fal fālu fōlginn koma (_come_) kömr kom kvāmu kominn sofa (_sleep_) söfr svaf svāfu sofinn

145.

V. 'Give'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

drepa (_kill_) drepr drap drāpu drepinn gefa (_give_) gefr gaf gāfu gefinn kveða (_say_) kveðr kvað kvāðu kveðinn meta (_estimate_) metr mat mātu metinn reka (_drive_) rekr rak rāku rekinn eta (_eat_) etr āt ātu etinn sjā (_see_) sēr[6] sā sā[7] sēnn

[Footnote 6: sē, sēr, sēr; sjām, sēð, sjā. Subj. sē, sēr, sē; sēm, sēð, sē.]

[Footnote 7: sām, sāið, sā.]

146. The following have weak presents:--