Chapter 1

AN ICELANDIC PRIMER

With Grammar, Notes, and Glossary

By Henry Sweet, M.A.

SECOND EDITION

1895

PREFACE

The want of a short and easy introduction to the study of Icelandic has been felt for a long time--in fact, from the very beginning of that study in England. The _Icelandic Reader_, edited by Messrs. Vigfusson and Powell, in the Clarendon Press Series, is a most valuable book, which ought to be in the hands of every student; but it still leaves room for an elementary primer. As the engagements of the editors of the Reader would have made it impossible for them to undertake such a work for some years to come, they raised no objections to my proposal to undertake it myself. Meanwhile, I found the task was a more formidable one than I had anticipated, and accordingly, before definitely committing myself to it, I made one final attempt to induce Messrs. Vigfusson and Powell to take it off my hands; but they very kindly encouraged me to proceed with it; and as I myself thought that an Icelandic primer, on the lines of my Anglo-Saxon one, might perhaps be the means of inducing some students of Old English to take up Icelandic as well, I determined to go on.

In the spelling I have not thought it necessary to adhere strictly to that adopted in the Reader, for the editors have themselves deviated from it in their _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, in the way of separating _ǫ_ from _ö_, etc. My own principle has been to deviate as little as possible from the traditional spelling followed in normalized texts. There is, indeed, no practical gain for the beginner in writing _tīme_ for _tīmi_, discarding _ð_, etc., although these changes certainly bring us nearer the oldest MSS., and cannot be dispensed with in scientific works. The essential thing for the beginner is to have _regular_ forms presented to him, to the exclusion, as far as possible, of isolated archaisms, and to have the defective distinctions of the MSS. supplemented by diacritics. I have not hesitated to substitute (¯) for (´) as the mark of length; the latter ought in my opinion to be used exclusively--in Icelandic as well as in Old English and Old Irish--to represent the actual accents of the MSS.

In the grammar I have to acknowledge my great obligations to Noreen's _Altisländische Grammatik_, which is by far the best Icelandic grammar that has yet appeared--at least from that narrow point of view which ignores syntax, and concentrates itself on phonology and inflections.

The texts are intended to be as easy, interesting, and representative as possible. With such a language, and such a master of it as Snorri to choose from, this combination is not difficult to realise. The beginner is indeed to be envied who makes his first acquaintance with the splendid mythological tales of the North, told in an absolutely perfect style. As the death of Olaf Tryggvason is given in the Reader only from the longer recension of the Heimskringla, I have been able to give the shorter text, which is admirably suited for the purposes of this book. The story of Auðun is not only a beautiful one in itself, but, together with the preceding piece, gives a vivid idea of the Norse ideal of the kingly character, which was the foundation of their whole political system. As the Reader does not include poetry (except incidentally), I have added one of the finest of the Eddaic poems, which is at the same time freest from obscurity and corruption--the song of Thor's quest of his hammer.

In the glossary I have ventured to deviate from the very inconvenient Scandinavian arrangement, which puts _þ_, _æ_, _œ_, right at the end of the alphabet.

I have to acknowledge the great help I have had in preparing the texts and the glossary from Wimmer's _Oldnordisk Læsebog_, which I consider to be, on the whole, the best reading-book that exists in any language. So excellent is Wimmer's selection of texts, that it was impossible for me to do otherwise than follow him in nearly every case.

In conclusion, it is almost superfluous to say that this book makes no pretension to originality of any kind. If it contributes towards restoring to Englishmen that precious heritage--the old language and literature of Iceland--which our miserably narrow scheme of education has hitherto defrauded them of, it will have fulfilled its purpose.

HENRY SWEET London, February, 1886

GRAMMAR

1. This book deals with Old Icelandic in its classical period, between 1200 and 1350.

PRONUNCIATION

2. The Icelandic alphabet was founded on the Latin, with the addition of _þ_ and _ð_, and of the modified letters _ę_, _ǫ_, _ø_, which last is in this book written _ö_, _ǫ̈_.

Vowels

3. The vowel-letters had nearly the same values as in Old English. Long vowels were often marked by (´). In this book long vowels are regularly marked by (¯)[1]. The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):--

[Footnote 1: Note that the longs of _ę_, _ö_ are written _æ_, _œ_, respectively.]

a _as in_ mann (G.) halda (_hold_) ā " father rāð (_advice_) e " été (F.) gekk (_went_) ē[2] . . . lēt (let _pret._) ę " men męnn (_men_)

[Footnote 2: Where no keyword is given for a long vowel, its sound is that of the corresponding short vowel lengthened.]

æ _as in_ there sær (_sea_) i " fini (F.) mikill (_great_) ī . . . lītill (_little_) o " beau (F.) orð (_word_) ō . . . tōk (_look_) ǫ " not hǫnd (_hand_) ö " peu (F.) kömr (_comes_) œ . . . fœra (_bring_) ǫ̈ " peur (F.) gǫ̈ra (_make_) u " sou (F.) upp (_up_) ū . . . hūs (_house_) y " tu (F.) systir (_sister_) ȳ . . . lȳsa (_shine_) au " haus (G.) lauss (_loose_) ei = ę + i bein (_bone_) ey = ę + y leysa (_loosen_)

4. The unaccented _i_ in _systir_, etc. (which is generally written _e_ in the MSS.) probably had the sound of _y_ in _pity_, which is really between _i_ and _e_. The unacc. _u_ in _fōru_ (they went), etc. (which is generally written _o_ in the MSS.) probably had the sound of _oo_ in _good_.

Note that several of the vowels go in pairs of _close_ and _open_, thus:

close : e ē o ō ö œ open : ę æ ǫ - ǫ̈ -

Consonants

5. Double consonants followed by a vowel must be pronounced really double, as in Italian. Thus the _kk_ in _drekka_ (to drink) must be pronounced like the _kc_ in _bookcase_, while the _k_ in _dręki_ (dragon) is single, as in _booking_. When final (or followed by another cons.) double conss. are pronounced long, as in _munn_ (mouth _acc._), _hamarr_ (hammer _nom._), _steinn_ (stone _nom._), distinguished from _mun_ (will _vb._), and the accusatives _hamar_, _stein_.

6. _k_ and _g_ had a more front (palatal) sound before the front vowels _e_, _ę_, _i_, _ö_, _ǫ̈_, _y_, and their longs, as also before _j_, as in _kęnna_ (known), _keyra_ (drive), _gǫ̈ra_ (make), _liggja_ (lie).

7. _kkj_, _ggj_ were probably pronounced simply as double front _kk_, _gg_, the _j_ not being pronounced separately.

8. *f* had initially the sound of our _f_, medially and finally that of _v_, as in _gefa_ (give), _gaf_ (gave), except of course in such combinations as _ft_, where it had the sound of _f_.

9. *g* was a stopped (back or front--guttural or palatal) cons. initially and in the combination _ng_, the two _g_'s in _ganga_ (go) being pronounced as in _go_. It had the open sound of G. _g_ in _sagen_ medially before the back vowels _a_, _o_, _ǫ_, _u_, and all conss. except _j_, and finally:--_saga_ (tale), _dǫgum_ (with days); _sagði_ (he said); _lag_ (he lay). Before the front vowels and _j_ it had the sound of G. _g_ in _liegen_, or nearly that of _j_ (our _y_), as in _sęgir_ (says), _sęgja_ (to say).

10. Before voiceless conss. (_t_, _s_) _g_ seems to have been pronounced _k_, as in _sagt_ (said), _dags_ (day's).

11. The _g_ was always sounded in the combination _ng_, as in _single_, not as in _singer_.

12. *h* was sounded before _j_ in such words as _hjarta_ (heart) much as in E. _hue_ (= hjū). _hl_, _hn_, _hr_, _hv_ probably represented voiceless _l_, _n_, _r_, _w_ respectively, _hv_ being identical with E. _wh_: _hlaupa_ (leap), _hnīga_ (bend), _hringr_ (ring), _hvat_ (what).

13. *j* is not distinguished from _i_ in the MSS. It had the sound of E. _y_ in _young_: _jǫrð_ (earth), _sętja_ (to set).

14. *p* in _pt_ probably had the sound of _f_: _lopt_ (air).

15. *r* was always a strong point trill, as in Scotch.

16. *s* was always sharp.

17. *v* (which was sometimes written _u_ and _w_) had the sound of E. _w_: _vel_ (well), _hǫggva_ (hew).

18. *z* had the sound of _ts_: _bęztr_ (best).

19. *þ* and *ð* were used promiscuously in the older MS., the very oldest using _þ_ almost exclusively. In Modern Icelandic _þ_ is written initially to express the sound of E. hard _th_, _ð_ medially and finally to express that of soft _th_; as there can be no doubt that this usage corresponds with the old pronunciation, it is retained in this book: _þing_ (parliament), _faðir_ (father), _við_ (against). In such combinations as _pð_ the _ð_ must of course be pronounced _þ_.

Stress

20. The stress (accent) is always on the first syllable.

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

21. The vowels are related to one another in different ways, the most important of which are _mutation_ (umlaut), _fracture_ (brechung), and _gradation_ (ablaut).

Mutation

22. The following changes are *i*-mutations (caused by an older _i_ or _j_ following, which has generally been dropped)[3]:

[Footnote 3: Many of the _i_'s which appear in derivative and inflectional syllables are late weakenings of _a_ and other vowels, as in _bani_ (death) = Old English _bana_; these do not cause mutation.]

*a* (*ǫ*) ... *ę* :-- _mann_ (man _acc._), _męnn_ (men); _hǫnd_ (hand), _hęndr_ (hands).

*ā* ... *æ* :-- _māl_ (speech), _mæla_ (speak).

*e* (*ja*, *jǫ*) ... *i* :-- _verðr_ (worth), _virða_ (estimate).

*u* (*o*) ... *y* :-- _fullr_ (full), _fylla_ (to fill); _lopt_ (air), _lypta_ (lift).

*ū* ... *ȳ* :-- _brūn_ (eyebrow), pl. _brȳnn_.

*o* ... *ö* :-- _koma_ (to come), _kömr_ (comes).

*ō* ... *œ* :-- _fōr_ (went), _fœra_ (bring).

*au* ... *ey* :-- _lauss_ (loose), _leysa_ (loosen).

*jū* (*jō*) ... *ȳ* :-- _sjūkr_ (sick), _sȳki_ (sickness); _ljōsta_ (strike), _lȳstr_ (strikes).

23. The change of _a_ into _ę_ is sometimes the result of a following _k_, _g_, or _ng_, as in _dęgi_ dat. sg. of _dagr_ (day), _tękinn_ (taken), _gęnginn_ (gone), inf. _taka_, _ganga_. _i_ appears instead of _e_, and _u_ instead of _o_ before a nasal followed by another cons.: cp. _binda_ (to bind), _bundinn_ (bound) with _bresta_ (burst) ptc. prt. _brostinn_.

24. There is also a *u*-mutation, caused by a following _u_, which has often been dropped:

*a* ... *ǫ* :-- _dagr_ (day) dat. pl. _dǫgum_; _land_ (land) pl. _lǫnd_.

25. Unaccented _ǫ_ becomes _u_, as in _sumur_ pl. of _sumar_ (summer), _kǫlluðu_ (they called), infin. _kalla_.

Fracture

26. The only vowel that is affected by fracture is _e_: when followed by original _a_ it becomes _ja_, when followed by original _u_ it becomes _jǫ_, as in _jarðar_ gen. of _jǫrð_ (earth)[4]. When followed by original _i_, the _e_ is, of course, mutated to _i_, as in _skildir_ plur. nom. of _skjǫldr_ (shield), gen. _skjaldar_.

[Footnote 4: Cp. German _erde_.]

Gradation

27. By gradation the vowels are related as follows:--

*a* ... *ō* :-- _fara_ (go) pret. _fōr_, whence by mut. _fœra_ (bring).

*e* (i, ja) ... *a* ... *u* (o) :-- _bresta_ (burst), prt. _brast_, prt. pl. _brustu_, ptc. prt. _brostinn_; _finna_ (find), _fundinn_ (found _ptc._), _fundr_ (meeting).

*e* ... *a* ... *ā* ... *o* :-- _stela_ (steal), prt. _stal_, prt. pl. _stālu_, ptc. prt. _stolinn_.

*e* ... *a* ... *ā* ... *e* :-- _gefa_ (give), _gaf_ (he gave), _gāfu_ (they gave), _gefinn_ (given), _gjǫf_ (gift), _u_-fracture of _gef-_, _gæfa_ (luck) mut. of _gāf-_.

*ī* ... *ei* ... *i* :-- _skīna_ (shine), _skein_ (he shone), _skinu_ (they shone). _sōl-skin_ (sunshine).

*jū* (jō) ... *au* ... *u* ... *o* :-- _ljūga_ (tell a lie), prt. _laug_, prt. pl. _lugu_, ptc. prt. _loginn_. _lygi_ (lie _sbst._) mut. of _lug-_. _skjōta_ (shoot), _skjōtr_ (swift), _skotinn_ (shot _ptc._), _skot_ (shot _subst._).

Other changes

28. All final vowels are long in accented syllables: _þā_ (then), _nū_ (now).

29. Inflectional and derivative vowels are often dropt after long accented vowels: cp. _ganga_ (to go) with _fā_ (to get), the dat. plurals _knjām_ (knees) with _hūsum_ (houses).

30. Vowels are often lengthened before _l_ + cons.: _hālfr_ (half _adj._), _fōlk_ (people); cp. _fōlginn_ (hidden) with _brostinn_ (burst _ptc._).

Consonants

31. _v_ is dropped before _o_ and _u_: _vaxa_ (to grow), prt. _ōx_, _vinna_ (to win), _unninn_ (won _ptc._), _svelta_ (to starve), _soltinn_ (starved, hungry).

Final _r_ is often assimilated to a preceding cons.

32. _*-lr_, _*-nr_, _*-sr_ always become _-ll_, _-nn_, _-ss_ after a long vowel or diphthong, as in _stōll_ (chair _nom._), acc. _stōl_, _steinn_ (stone _nom._), acc. _stein_, _vīss_ (wise _masc. nom. sg._), _vīs_ fem. nom. sg., and in unacc. syllables, as in the masc. sg. nominatives _mikill_ (great), fem. _mikil_, _borinn_ (carried), fem. _borin_, _ȳmiss_ (various) fem. _ȳmis_.

33. Words in which _l_, _n_, _r_, _s_ are preceded by a cons. drop the _r_ entirely, as in the masc. nominatives _jarl_ (earl), _hrafn_ (raven), _vitr_ (wise), _þurs_ (giant), _lax_ (salmon).

34. If _l_ and _n_ are preceded by a short accented vowel, the _r_ is generally kept, as in _stelr_ (steals), _vinr_, (friend), _sr_ becoming _ss_, as elsewhere.

35. _r_ is kept after _ll_, and generally after _nn_, as in the masc. nom. _allr_ (all), and in _bręnnr_ (burns).

36. _z_ often stands for _ðs_ as well as _ts_, as in _þēr þykkizk_ (ye seem) = _*þykkið-sk_, _Vest-firzkr_ (belonging to the West Firths) = _-*firðskr_ (_fǫrðr_, firth).

37. Inflectional _t_ is generally doubled after a long accented vowel: _fār_ (few) neut. _fātt_ (cp. _allr_ 'all,' neut. _allt_), _sā_ (I saw), _sātt_ 'thou sawest.'

INFLECTIONS

Nouns

38. *Gender*. There are three genders in Icelandic--masculine, feminine, and neuter. The gender is partly natural, partly grammatical, generally agreeing with the gender in Old English. Compound words follow the gender of their last element.

39. *Strong and Weak*. All weak nouns end in a vowel in the nom. sg. and in most of the other cases as well. Most strong nouns end in a cons. in the nom. sg.

40. *Cases*. There are four cases--nominative, accusative, dative, genitive. All nouns (except a few contractions) have the gen. pl. in _-a_ (_fiska_, of fishes), and the dat. pl. in _-um_ (_fiskum_). All strong masculines (_fiskr_) and some strong feminines (_brūðr_, bride) take _r_[5] in the nom. sg. Most strong feminines show the bare root in the nom. sg. with _u_-mutation, if possible (_āst_, favour, _fǫr_, journey). The nom. pl. of all strong masc. and fem. nouns ends in _r_ (_fiskar_, _āstir_). The acc. pl. of fem. nouns is the same as the nom. pl. (_āstir_). The acc. pl. of masc. strong nouns always ends in a vowel (_fiska_). The plur. nom. and acc. of neuters is the same as the sing. nom. and acc., except that in the plur. nom. and acc. they take _u_-mutation, if possible (_hūs_, houses, _lǫnd_, lands).

[Footnote 5: Subject, of course, to the assimilations described above.]

41. The declensions are most conveniently distinguished by the acc. plur.

Strong Masculines

(1) a-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ fisk-r (_fish_) fisk-ar _Acc._ fisk fisk-a _Dat._ fisk-i fisk-um _Gen._ fisk-s fisk-a

42. So also _heimr_ (home, world); _konungr_ (king); _Þōrr_ (Thor), acc. _Þōr_, gen. _Þōrs_; _steinn_ (stone), acc. _stein_, gen. _steins_, pl. nom. _steinar_; _hrafn_ (raven), acc. _hrafn_, pl. nom. _hrafnar_; _þurs_ (giant), acc. gen. _þurs_, pl. nom. _þursar_.

43. Dissyllables in _-r_, _-l_, _-n_ generally throw out the preceding vowel before a vowel-inflection: _hamarr_ (hammer), dat. _hamri_; _jǫtunn_ (giant), pl. nom. _jǫtnar_. _kętill_ (kettle) and _lykill_ (key) show unmutated vowels in the contracted forms, as in the acc. plur. _katla_, _lukla_.

44. Some nouns of this decl. take _-ar_ in the gen. sing., especially proper names, such as _Hākon_, gen. _Hākonar_.

45. Some nouns add _v_ before vowels: _sær_ (sea), gen. _sævar_.

46. The dat. sometimes drops the _i_: _sæ_ (sea), _Þōr_. _dagr_ (day) mutates its vowel in the dat. _dęgi_.

47. Nouns in _-ir_ keep the _i_ in the sing., and drop it in the plur.:

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ hęlli-r (_cave_) hęll-ar _Acc._ hęlli hęll-a _Dat._ hęlli hęll-um _Gen._ hęlli-s hęll-a

48. So also a number of proper names, such as _Skrȳmir_, _Þōrir_.

(2) i-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ stað-r (_place_) stað-ir _Acc._ stað stað-i _Dat._ stað stǫð-um _Gen._ stað-ar stað-a

49. So also _gripr_ (precious thing), _salr_ (hall).

50. _gęstr_ (guest) takes _-i_ in the dat. sg., and _-s_ in the gen. sg.

51. Those ending in _g_ or _k_ (together with some others) insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _bękkr_ (bench), _bękk_, _bękk_, _bękkjar_; _bękkir_, _bękki_, _bękkjum_, _bękkja_. So also _męrgr_ (marrow), _stręngr_ (string).

(3) u-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ skjǫld-r (_shield_) skild-ir _Acc._ skjǫld skjǫld-u _Dat._ skild-i skjǫld-um _Gen._ skjald-ar skjald-a

52. So also _vǫndr_ (twig), _vǫllr_ (plain), _viðr_ (wood). _āss_ (god) has plur. nom. _æsir_, acc. _āsu_. _sonr_ (son) has dat. sg. _syni_, plur. nom. _synir_. It regularly drops its _r_ of the nom. in such compounds as _Tryggva-son_ (son of Tryggvi).

(4) r-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ fōt-r (_foot_) fœt-r _Acc._ fōt fœt-r _Dat._ fœt-i fōt-um _Gen._ fōt-ar fōt-a

53. So also _fingr_ (finger), gen. _fingrar_, pl. _fingr_; _vetr_ (winter), pl. _vetr_. _maðr_ (man) is irregular: _maðr_, _mann_, _manni_, _manns_; _męnn_, _męnn_, _mǫnnum_, _manna_.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ faðir (_father_) fęðr _Acc._ fǫður fęðr _Dat._ fǫður fęðrum _Gen._ fǫður fęðra

54. So also _brōðir_ (brother), pl. _brœðr_.

55. Pres. participles used as nouns follow this decl. in the pl., following the weak class in the sg.:

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ bōndi (_yeoman_) bœndr _Acc._ bōnda bœndr _Dat._ bōnda bōndum _Gen._ bōnda bōnda

56. So also _frœndi_ (kinsman), pl. _frœndr_.

Strong Neuters

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ skip (_ship_) skip _Acc._ skip skip _Dat._ skip-i skip-um _Gen._ skip-s skip-a

57. So also _orð_ (word), _land_ (land) pl. _lǫnd_, _sumar_ (summer) pl. _sumur_ (§ 25).

58. _męn_ (necklace), _kyn_ (race), _grey_ (dog) insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _greyjum_. _hǫgg_ (stroke) inserts _v_ before a vowel: _hǫggvi_. _knē_ (knee), _knē_, _knē_, _knēs_; _knē_, _knē_, _kjām_, _knjā_. So also _trē_ (tree).

59. _fē_ (money) is contracted: gen. _fjār_, dat. _fē_.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ kvæði (_poem_) kvæði _Acc._ kvæði kvæði _Dat._ kvæði kvæðum _Gen._ kvæði-s kvæða

60. So also _klæði_ (cloth). Those in _k_ insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _męrki_ (mark), _męrkjum_, _męrkja_. So also _rīki_ (sovereignty).

Strong Feminines

(1) ar-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ gjǫf (_gift_) gjaf-ar _Acc._ gjǫf gjaf-ar _Dat._ gjǫf gjǫf-um _Gen._ gjaf-ar gjaf-a

61. So also _mǫn_ (mane), _gjǫrð_ (girdle), _ār_ (oar).

62. _ā_ (river) contracts: _ā_, _ā_, _ā_, _ār_; _ār_, _ār_, _ām_, _ā_.

63. Many take _-u_ in the dat. sg.: _kęrling_ (old woman), _kęrling_, _kęrlingu_, _kęrlingar_; _kęrlingar_, _kęrlingar_, _kęrlingum_, _kęrlinga_. So also _laug_ (bath).

64. Those with a mutated root-vowel (or _i_) insert _j_ in inflection: _ey_ (island), _ey_, _eyju_, _eyjar_; _eyjar_, _eyjar_, _eyjum_, _eyja_. So also _Frigg_, _Hęl_. _mær_ (maid), _mey_, _meyju_, _meyjar_; _meyjar_, _meyjar_, _meyjum_, _meyja_.

65.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ heið-r (_heath_) heið-ar _Acc._ heið-i heið-ar _Dat._ heið-i heið-um _Gen._ heið-ar heið-a

(2) ir-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ tīð tīð-ir _Acc._ tīð tīð-ir _Dat._ tīð tīð-um _Gen._ tīð-ar tīð-a

66. So also _sorg_ (sorrow), _skipun_ (arrangement), _hǫfn_ (harbour) pl. _hafnir_, and the majority of strong feminines.

67. Many have _-u_ in the dat. sg.: _sōl_ (sun), _sōl_, _sōlu_, _sōlar_; _sōlir_, _sōlir_, _sōlum_, _sōla_. So also _jǫrð_ (earth), _stund_ (period of time).

68. One noun has _r_ in the nom. sg., following _heiðr_ in the sg.: _brūðr_ (bride), _brūði_, _brūði_, _brūðar_; _brūðir_, _brūðir_, _brūðum_, _brūða_.

(3) r-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ bōk (_book_) bœk-r _Acc._ bōk bœk-r _Dat._ bōk bōk-um _Gen._ bōk-ar bōk-a

69. So also _nātt_ (night) pl. _nætr_, _bōt_ (compensation) pl. _bœtr_, _tǫnn_ (tooth) gen. _tannar_ pl. _tęnnr_.

70. _hǫnd_ (hand) pl. _hęndr_ has dat. sg. _hęndi_.

71. _kȳr_ (cow) has acc. _kū_, pl. _kȳr_.

72. _brūn_ (eyebrow) assimilates the _r_ of the pl.: _brȳnn_.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ mōðir (_mother_) mœðr _Acc._ mōður mœðr _Dat._ mōður mœðrum _Gen._ mōður mœðra

73. So also _dōttir_ (daughter) pl. _dœtr_; _systir_ (sister) pl. _systr_.

Weak Masculines

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ bog-i (_bow_) bog-ar _Acc._ bog-a bog-a _Dat._ bog-a bog-um _Gen._ bog-a bog-a

74. So also _māni_ (moon), _fēlagi_ (companion).

75. _hǫfðingi_ (chief) and some others insert _j_ in inflection: _hǫfðingja_, _hǫfðingjar_, _hǫfðingjum_.

76. _lē_ (scythe) is contracted; its gen. sg. is _ljā_.

77. _oxi_ (ox) has pl. _öxn_.

78. _herra_ (lord) is indeclinable in the sg.

Weak Neuters

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ hjart-a (_heart_) hjǫrt-u _Acc._ hjart-a hjǫrt-u _Dat._ hjart-a hjǫrt-um _Gen._ hjart-a hjart-na

79. So also _auga_ (eye).

Weak Feminines

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ tung-a (_tongue_) tung-ur _Acc._ tung-u tung-ur _Dat._ tung-u tung-um _Gen._ tung-u tung-na