Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th Edition Brequigny Louis Georges O

Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. Volume and page numbers have been incorporated into the text of each...

Nothing definite is known of Brest till about 1240, when it was ceded by a count of Léon to John I., duke of Brittany. In 1342 John of Montfort gave it up to the English, and it...

BRETWALDA, a word used in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_ under the date 827, and also in a charter of Æthelstan, king of the English. It appears in several variant forms (_brytenwa...

[1] It was approved by Clement VII. and Paul III., and permitted as a substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V. in 1568 excluded it as too short and too modern, and i...

The causes which have led to the largely increased use of substitutes in the United Kingdom are of a somewhat complex nature. In the first place, it was not until the malt tax w...

(A) In (a) the _Skimming System_ the fermentation from start to finish takes place in wooden vessels (termed "squares" or "rounds"), fitted with an attemperator and a parachute...

BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781-1868), Scottish natural philosopher, was born on the 11th of December 1781 at Jedburgh, where his father, a teacher of high reputation, was rector of t...

BRIAND, ARISTIDE (1862- ), French statesman, was born at Nantes, of a bourgeois family. He studied law, and while still young took to politics, associating himself with the most...

Brick clays of class (1) are very widely distributed, and have a more extensive geological range than the marls, which are found in connexion with chalk or limestone formations...

_Blue Brick_ is a very strong vitreous brick of dark, slaty-blue colour, used in engineering works where great strength or impermeability is desirable. These bricks are made of...

In mixing mortar, particular attention must be paid to the sand with which the lime or cement is mixed. The best sand is that [Sidenote: Mortar.] obtained from the pit, being sh...

After the footings have been laid and the wall has been brought up to not less than 6 in. above the finished surface of the ground, and previous to fixing the plate carrying the...

BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g. Goth. _bruths_, O.Eng. _bryd_, O.H.Ger. _prût_, Mod. Ger. _Braut_, Dut. _bruid_, possibly derived from the root _bru-_, cook, brew; from the...

Against no-trumps the leader should not play his winning cards unless he has a good chance of clearing the suit without help from his partner; in most cases it is advisable to g...

[v.04 p.0533] BRIDGES. 1. _Definitions and General Considerations._--Bridges (old forms, _brig_, _brygge_, _brudge_; Dutch, _brug_; German, _Brücke_; a common Teutonic word) are...

The thermal coefficient of expansion of steel and concrete is nearly the same, otherwise changes of temperature would cause shearing stress at the junction of the two materials....

In both England and America in early braced bridges cast iron, generally in the form of tubes circular or octagonal in section, was used for compression members, and wrought iro...

The Runcorn bridge crosses the Manchester Ship Canal and the Mersey in one span of 1000 ft., and four approach spans of 55½ ft. on one side and one span on the other. The low-le...

ii. _Impact._--If a vertical load is imposed suddenly, but without velocity, work is done during deflection, and the deformation and stress are momentarily double those due to t...

If A_t A_c are the cross sections of the tension and compression flanges or chords, and h the distance between their mass centres, then on the assumption that they resist all th...

In a three-span bridge continuous girders are lighter than discontinuous ones by about 45% for the dead load and 15% for the live load, if no allowance is made for ambiguity due...

BRIDGETT, THOMAS EDWARD (1829-1899), Roman Catholic priest and historical writer, was born at Derby on the 20th of January 1829. He was brought up a Baptist, but in his sixteent...

BRIDLINGTON, a market town, municipal borough and seaside resort in the Buckrose parliamentary division of the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, 31 m. N.N.E. from Hull by a bra...

BRIENZ, LAKE OF, in the Swiss canton of Bern, the first lake into which the river Aar expands. It lies in a deep hollow between the village of Brienz on the east (2580 inhabitan...

The history of brigandage in Spain is very similar. It may be said to have been endemic in and south of the Sierra Morena. In the north it has flourished when government was wea...

This "first lesson in public speaking," as Bright called it, was given in his twenty-first year, but he had not then contemplated entering on a public career. He was a fairly pr...

BRIGHTON, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Sussex, England, one of the best-known seaside resorts in the United Kingdom, 51 m. S. from London by the London, Brig...

BRIOSCO, ANDREA (c. 1470-1532), Italian sculptor and architect, known as Riccio ("curly-headed"), was born at Padua. In architecture he is known by the church of Sta Giustina in...

GEORGE WILLIAM HERVEY, 2nd earl of Bristol (1721-1775), the eldest son of John, Lord Hervey of Ickworth, by his marriage with Mary (1700-1768), daughter of Nicholas Lepell, was...

On the 15th of September he was created earl of Bristol. He urged on the marriage treaty, believing it would include favourable conditions for Frederick, but the negotiations we...

_History._--Bristol (Brigstow, Bristou, Bristow, Bristole) is one of the best examples of a town that has owed its greatness entirely to trade. It was never a shire town or the...

I. _The Roman Conquest._--The conquest of Britain was undertaken by Claudius in A.D. 43. Two causes coincided to produce the step. On the one hand a forward policy then ruled at...

III. _The Civilization of Roman Britain._--Behind these formidable garrisons, sheltered from barbarians and in easy contact with the Roman empire, stretched the lowlands of sout...

For Roman Britain see, in general, Prof. F. Haverfield, _The Romanization of Roman Britain_ (Oxford, 1906), and his articles in the _Victoria County History_; also the chapter i...

6. _Agriculture and Village Life._--There is no doubt that a fairly advanced system of agriculture must have been known to the Anglo-Saxons before they settled in Britain. This...

16. _Funeral Rites._--Both inhumation and cremation were practised in heathen times. The former seems to have prevailed everywhere; the latter, however, was much more common in...

_Inhabitants._--The human race is represented by only one indigenous native type--the Negro. No trace is anywhere found of a Hamitic intermixture (unless perhaps at the north en...

_Fauna._--Among the larger mammals are the big-horn or mountain sheep (_Ovis canadensis_), the Rocky Mountain goat (_Mazama montana_), the grizzly bear, moose, woodland caribou,...

The first of the parallel zones--the coast plain or "Temborari"--is generally of insignificant width, varying from 2 to 10 m., except in the valleys of the main rivers. The shor...

_Government._--The system of government resembles that of a British crown colony. At the head of the administration is a governor, who has a deputy styled lieutenant-governor, p...

The empire contains or is bounded by some of the highest mountains, the greatest lakes, and the most important rivers of the world. Its climates may be said to include all the k...

In the Pacific are also Bird Island, Bramble Cay, Cato Island, Cook Islands, Danger Islands, Ducie Island, Dudosa, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Kermadec Islands, Macquarie Isl...

The movement in favour of tariff reform initiated by Mr Chamberlain (_q.v._) in 1903 with the double object of giving a preference to colonial goods and of protecting imperial t...

Land defence, though a secondary branch of the great question of imperial defence, has been intimately connected with the development and internal growth of the empire. In the c...

_History._--"His Majesty's Settlement in the Bay of Honduras," as the territory was formerly styled in official documents, owes, its origin, in 1638, to log-wood cutters who had...

BRIVE, or BRIVES-LA-GAILLARDE, a town of south-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Corrèze, 62 m. S.S.E. of Limoges on the main line of the Orléans...

The Latin word _broccus_ is related equally to the Italian _brocato_, the Spanish _brocar_ and the French _brocarts_ and _brocher_, and implies a form of stitching or broaching,...

BROCKTON, a city of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20 m. S. of Boston, and containing an area of 21 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1870) 8007; (1880)13,608; (18...

ACHILLE CHARLES LÉONCE VICTOR, DUC DE BROGLIE (1785-1870), statesman and diplomatist, son of the last-named, was born at Paris on the 28th of November 1785. His mother had share...

There was in the earlier part of the 19th century considerable discussion in the courts as to whether the entry in a broker's book, or the bought and sold notes (singly or toget...

BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79.96), a chemical element of the halogen group, which takes its name from its pungent unpleasant smell ([Greek: brômos], a stench). It was fir...

BRONCHITIS, the name given to inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: _Pathology_). Two main varieties are described, specific and no...

His other principal works are :--_Traité élémentaire de minéralogie, avec des applications aux arts_ (2 vols., Paris, 1807); _Histoire naturelle des crustacés fossiles_ (Paris,...

BRONZE, an alloy formed wholly or chiefly of copper and tin in variable proportions. The word has been etymologically connected with the same root as appears in "brown," but acc...

The T-form, the medallion-form, and (occasionally) the animal forms occur in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. In Kent the medallion-form predominates. The Anglo-Saxon brooches [v....

BROOK FARM, the name applied to a tract of land in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, on which in 1841-1847 a communistic experiment was unsuccessfully tried. The experiment was one o...

The sexual organs are always situated on the morphologically upper surface of the thallus. In _Riccia_ they are scattered singly and protected by the air-chamber layer. The scat...

On the whole mosses grow in drier situations than the liverworts, and the arrangements they present for the conduction of water in the plant are also more complete and suggest i...

BRZOZOWSKI, THADDEUS (d. 1820), nineteenth general of the Jesuits, was appointed in succession to Gabriel Gruber on the 2nd of September 1805. In 1801 Pius VII. had given the Je...

BUCCARI (Serbo-Croatian _Bakar_), a royal free town of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; situated in the county of Modru[vs]-Fiume, 7 m. S.E. of Fiume, on a small bay of the Adriatic S...

BUCHAN, PETER (1790-1854), Scottish editor, was born at Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, in 1790. In 1816 he started in business as a printer at Peterhead, and was successful enough to...

BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1901), British poet, novelist and dramatist, son of Robert Buchanan (1813-1866), Owenite lecturer and journalist, was born at Caverswall, Staffor...

BÜCHNER, FRIEDRICH KARL CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1824-1899), German philosopher and physician, was born at Darmstadt. He studied at Giessen, Strassburg, Würzburg and Vienna. In 1852 he...

BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE OF[1] (1592-1628), English statesman, born in August 1592,[2] was a younger son of Sir George Villiers of Brooksby. His mother, Mary, daugh...

On the king's return Buckingham, who met him at his landing at Dover, was at first received coldly; but he was soon again in favour, was appointed a gentleman of the bedchamber,...

Buckingham (Bochingeham, Bukyngham) was an important stronghold in pre-Conquest times, and in 918 Edward the Elder encamped there with his army for four weeks, and threw up two...

The shire of Buckingham originated with the division of Mercia in the reign of Edward the Elder, and was probably formed by the aggregation of pre-existing hundreds round the co...

BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (1823- ), American soldier and political leader, was born in Hart county, Kentucky, on the 1st of April 1823. He graduated at West Point in 1844, and was...

_Trade._---In commerce and industry Budapest is by far the most important town in Hungary, and in the former, if not also in the latter, it is second to Vienna alone in the Aust...

He was in after years more generally known by his family name of Gotama, but his individual name was Siddhattha. When he was nineteen years old he was married to his cousin Yaso...

On another occasion he is said to have brought back to her right mind a young mother whom sorrow had for a time deprived of reason. Her name was Kis[=a]gotam[=i]. She had been m...

The passing away of pain or suffering is said to depend on an emancipation. And the Buddha is elsewhere (_Vinaya_ ii. 239) made to declare: "Just as the great ocean has one tast...

_Buddhist Texts. The Canonical Books._--It is necessary to remember that the Buddha, like other Indian teachers of his period, taught by conversation only. A highly-educated man...

_Modern Research._--The striking archaeological discoveries of recent years have both confirmed and added to our knowledge of the earliest period. Pre-eminent among these is the...

BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as _bulga_, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. _bougette_, from which the Eng. form is derived), the name appl...

The cathedral, which is one of the largest in South America, dating from 1752, resembles the Madeleine of Paris in design, and its classical portico facing the Plaza 25 de Mayo...

_Manufactures._--As a manufacturing centre Buffalo ranks next to New York among the cities of the state. The manufactures were valued in 1900 at $122,230,061 (of which $105,627,...

BUG, the name of two rivers of Europe. (1) A stream of European Russia, distinguished sometimes as the Southern Bug, which rises in the S. of the government of Volhynia, and flo...

The history of the bugle as a military instrument is in England closely connected with the creation of the light infantry, in which it gradually superseded the drum[13] as a dut...

Some soils are liable to change in form, expanding and contracting under meteorological influences; such are clays which [Sidenote: Foundations.] swell when wetted and shrink wh...

BUILDING SOCIETIES, the name given to societies "for the purpose of raising, by the subscriptions of the members, a stock or fund for making advances to members out of the funds...

_United States._--"Building and loan association" is a general term applied in the United States to such institutions as mutual loan associations, homestead aid associations, sa...

BUKOVINA, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by Rumania, W. by Transylvania and Hungary, and N. by Galicia. Area, 4035 sq. m. The country, es...