Chapter 78

BUG, the name of two rivers of Europe. (1) A stream of European Russia, distinguished sometimes as the Southern Bug, which rises in the S. of the government of Volhynia, and flows generally S.E. through the governments of Podolia and Kherson, and after picking up the Ingul from the left at Nikolayev, enters the _liman_ or lagoon into which the Dnieper also discharges. Its length is 470 m. Its upper part is beset with rapids, and its lower is of little value for navigation on account of the numerous sandbanks and blocks of rock which choke its bed. (2) A river distinguished as the Western Don, which rises in the E. of Austrian Galicia between Tarnopol and Brody, and flows N.N.W. as far as Brest-Litovsk, separating the Polish provinces of Lublin and Siedlce from the Russian governments of Volhynia and Grodno; it then swings away almost due W., between the provinces of Warsaw and Lomza, and joins the Vistula, 23 m. below the city of Warsaw. Length, 470 m. It is navigable from Brest-Litovsk downwards.

BUG, the common name for hemipterous insects of the family _Cimicidae_, of which the best-known example is the house bug or bed bug (_Cimex lectularius_). This disgusting insect is of an oval shape, of a rusty red colour, and, in common with the whole tribe to which it belongs, gives off an offensive odour when touched; unlike the others, however, it is wingless. The bug is provided with a proboscis, which when at rest lies along the inferior side of the thorax, and through which it sucks the blood of man, the sole food of this species. It is nocturnal in its habits, remaining concealed by day in crevices of bed furniture, among the hangings, or behind the wall paper, and shows considerable activity in its nightly raids in search of food. The female deposits her eggs at the beginning of summer in crevices of wood and other retired situations, and in three weeks the young emerge as small, white, and almost transparent larvae. These change their skin very frequently during growth, and attain full development in about eleven weeks. Two centuries ago the bed bug was a rare insect in Britain, and probably owes its name, which is derived from a Celtic word signifying "ghost" or "goblin," to the terror which its attacks at first inspired. An allied species, the dove-cote bug (_Cimex columbaria_), attacks domestic fowls and pigeons.

BUGEAUD DE LA PICONNERIE, THOMAS ROBERT, DUKE OF ISLY (1784-1849), marshal of France, was born at Limoges on the 15th of October 1784. He came of a noble family of Périgord, and was the youngest of his parents' thirteen children. Harsh treatment led to his flight from home, and for some years about 1800 he lived in the country, engaged in agriculture, to which he was ever afterwards devoted. At the age of twenty he became a private soldier in the _Vélites_ of the Imperial Guard (1804), with which he took part in the Austerlitz campaign of the following year. Early in 1806 he was given a commission, and as a sub-lieutenant he served in the Jena and Eylau campaigns, winning his promotion to the rank of lieutenant at Pultusk (December 1806). In 1808 he was in the first French corps which entered Spain, and was stationed in Madrid during the revolt of the _Dos Mayo_. At the second siege of Saragossa he won further promotion to the rank of captain, and in 1809-1810 found opportunities for winning distinction under General (Marshal) Suchet in the eastern theatre of the Peninsular War, in which he rose to the rank of major and the command of a full regiment. At the first restoration he was made a colonel, but he rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and under his old chief Suchet distinguished himself greatly in the war in the Alps. For fifteen years after the fall of Napoleon he was not re-employed, and during this time he displayed great activity in agriculture and in the general development of his district of Périgord. The July revolution of 1830 reopened his military career, and after a short tenure of a regimental command he was in 1831 made a _maréchal de camp_. In the chamber [v.04 p.0704] of deputies, to which he was elected in the same year, he showed himself to be an inflexible opponent of democracy, and in his military capacity he was noted for his severity in police work and the suppression of _émeutes_. His conduct as gaoler of the duchesse de Berry led to a duel between Bugeaud and the deputy Dulong, in which the latter was killed (1834); this affair and the incidents of another _émeute_ exposed Bugeaud to ceaseless attacks in the Chamber and in the press, but his opinion was sought by all parties in matters connected with agriculture and industrial development. He was re-elected in 1834, 1837 and 1839.

About this time Bugeaud became much interested in the question of Algeria. At first he appears to have disapproved of the conquest, but his undeviating adherence to Louis Philippe brought him into agreement with the government, and with his customary decision he proposed to employ at once whatever forces were necessary for the swift, complete and lasting subjugation of Algeria. Later events proved the soundness of his views; in the meantime Bugeaud was sent to Africa in a subordinate capacity, and proceeded without delay to initiate his war of flying columns. He won his first victory on the 7th of July 1836, made a brilliant campaign of six weeks' duration, and returned home with the rank of lieutenant-general. In the following year he signed the treaty of Tafna (June 1st, 1837), with Abd-el-Kader, an act which, though justified by the military and political situation, led to a renewal of the attacks upon him in the chamber, to the refutation of which Bugeaud devoted himself in 1839. Finally, in 1840, he was nominated governor-general of Algeria, and early in 1841 he put into force his system of flying columns. His swiftness and energy drove back the forces of Abd-el-Kader from place to place, while the devotion of the rank and file to "Père Bugeaud" enabled him to carry all before him in action. In 1842 he secured the French positions by undertaking the construction of roads. In 1843 Bugeaud was made marshal of France, and in this and the following year he continued his operations with unvarying success. His great victory of Isly on the 14th of August 1844 won for him the title of duke. In 1845, however, he had to take the field again in consequence of the disaster of Sidi Brahim (22nd of September 1845), and up to his final retirement from Algeria (July 1846) he was almost constantly employed in the field. His resignation was due to differences with the home government on the question of the future government of the province. Amidst his other activities he had found time to study the agricultural characteristics of the conquered country, and under his régime the number of French colonists had grown from 17,000 to 100,000. In 1848 the marshal was in Paris during the revolution, but his orders prevented him from acting effectually to suppress it. He was asked, but eventually refused, to be a candidate for the presidency in opposition to Louis Napoleon. His last public service was the command of the army of the Alps, formed in 1848-1849 to observe events in Italy. He died in Paris on the 10th of June 1849.

Bugeaud's writings were numerous, including his _Oeuvres militaires_, collected by Weil (Paris, 1883), many official reports on Algeria and the war there, and some works on economics and political science. See Comte d'Ideville, _Le Maréchal Bugeaud_ (Paris, 1881-1882).

BUGENHAGEN, JOHANN (1485-1558), surnamed POMERANUS, German Protestant reformer, was born at Wollin near Stettin on the 24th of June 1485. At the university of Greifswald he gained much distinction as a humanist, and in 1504 was appointed by the abbot of the Praemonstratensian monastery at Belbuck rector of the town school at Treptow. In 1509 he was ordained priest and became a vicar in the collegiate _Marienkirche_ at Treptow; in 1517 he was appointed lecturer on the Bible and Church Fathers at the abbey school at Belbuck. In 1520 Luther's _De Captivitate Babylonica_ converted him into a zealous supporter of the Reformer's views, to which he won over the abbot among others. In 1521 he went to Wittenberg, where he formed a close friendship with Luther and Melanchthon, and in 1522 he married. He preached and lectured in the university, but his zeal and organizing skill soon spread his reforming influence far beyond its limits. In 1528 he arranged the church affairs of Brunswick and Hamburg; in 1530 those of Lübeck and Pomerania. In 1537 he was invited to Denmark by Christian III., and remained five years in that country, organizing the church (though only a presbyter, he consecrated the new Danish bishops) and schools. He passed the remainder of his life at Wittenberg, braving the perils of war and persecution rather than desert the place dear to him as the home of the Reformation. He died on the 20th of April 1558. Among his numerous works is a history of Pomerania, which remained unpublished till 1728. Perhaps his best book is the _Interpretatio in Librum Psalmorum_ (1523), and he is also remembered as having helped Luther in his translation of the Bible.

See Life by H. Hering (Halle, 1888); Emil Görigk, _Bugenhagen und die Protestantisierung Pommerns_ (1895). O. Vogt published a collection of Bugenhagen's correspondence in 1888, and a supplement in 1890.

BUGGE, SOPHUS (1833-1907), Norwegian philologist, was born at Laurvik, Norway, on the 5th of January 1833. He was educated at Christiania, Copenhagen and Berlin, and in 1866 he became professor of comparative philology and Old Norse at Christiania University. In addition to collecting Norwegian folk-songs and traditions, and writing on Runic inscriptions, he made considerable contributions to the study of the Celtic, Romance, Oscan, Umbrian and Etruscan languages. He was the author of a very large number of books on philology and folklore. His principal work, a critical edition of the elder Edda (_Norroen Fornkvoedi_), was published at Christiania in 1867. He maintained that the songs of the _Edda_ and the earlier sagas were largely founded on Christian and Latin tradition imported into Scandinavian literature by way of England. His writings also include _Gamle Norske Folkeviser_ (1858), a collection of Old Norse folk-songs; _Bidrag til den aeldste skaldedigtnings historie_ (Christiania, 1894); _Helge-digtene i den Aeldre Edda_ (Copenhagen, 1896, Eng. trans., _The Home of the Eddic Poems_, 1899); _Norsk Sagafortaelling op Sagaskrivning i Island_ (Christiania, 1901), and various books on Runic inscriptions. He died on the 8th of July 1907.

For a further list of his works see J.B. Halvorsen, _Norsk Forfatter-Lexikon_, vol. i. (Christiania, 1885).

BUGGY, a vehicle with either two (in England and India) or four wheels (in America). English buggies are generally hooded and for one horse. American buggies are for one horse or two, and either covered with a hood or open; among the varieties are the "Goddard" (the name of the inventor), the "box," so called from the shape of the body, the "cut under," i.e. cut out for the front wheels to cramp beneath and so turn in a narrow space, the "end-spring" and "side-bar," names referring to the style of hanging. A skeleton buggy, lightly constructed, is used on the American "speedways," built and maintained for fast driving. The word is of unknown origin; it may be connected with "bogie" (_q.v._) a truck. The supposed Hindustani _bagg[=i]_, a gig, often given as the source, appears to be an invention or an adaptation into the vernacular of the English word.

BUGIS, or BUGHIS, a people of Malayan stock, originally occupying only the kingdom of Boni in the south-western peninsula of the island of Celebes. From this district they spread over the whole island, and founded settlements throughout the whole Malay Archipelago. They are of middle size and robust, of very active, enterprising nature and of a complexion slightly lighter than the average Malay. In disposition they are brave, haughty and fierce, and are said to be more predisposed towards "running amuck" than any other Malayans. They speak a language allied to that of the Macassars, and write it with similar characters. It has been studied, and its letters reproduced in type by Dr B.F. Mathes of the Netherlands Bible Society. The Bugis are industrious and ingenious; they practise agriculture more than the neighbouring tribes, and manufacture cotton-cloth not only for their own use but for export. They also carry on a considerable trade in the mineral and vegetable products of Boni, such as gold-dust, tortoise-shell, pearls, nut-megs and camphor. Thair love of the sea has given them almost a monopoly of trade around Celebes. Their towns [v.04 p.0705] are well built and they have schools of their own. The king is elected generally for life, and always from their own number, by the chiefs of the eight petty states that compose the confederation of Boni, and he cannot decide on any public measure without their consent. In some of the states the office of chief is hereditary; in others any member of the privileged classes may aspire to the dignity, and it not infrequently happens that the state is governed by a woman. The Bugis have been Mahommedans since the 17th century. Their original form of nature-worship had been much affected by Hindu influences, and even now they retain rites connected with the worship of Siva. See further BONI; CELEBES.

BUGLE, BUGLE-HORN, KEYED BUGLE, KENT BUGLE OR REGENT'S BUGLE (Fr. _Bugle_, _Clairon_, _Cor à clefs_, _Bugle à clefs_; Ger. _Flügelhorn_, _Signalhorn_, _Bugelhorn_, _Klappenhorn_, _Kenthorn_; Ital. _Corna cromatica_), a treble brass wind instrument with cup-shaped mouthpiece and conical bore, used as a military duty and signal instrument. The bugle was originally, as its name denotes, a bull's horn,[1] of which it has preserved the characteristic conical bore of rapidly increasing diameter.

Those members of the brass wind such as the horns, bugle, trumpet and tubas, which, in their simplest form, consist of tubes without lateral openings, depend for their scale on the harmonic series obtained by overblowing, i.e. by greater pressure of breath and by the increased tension of the lips, acting as reeds, across the mouthpiece. The harmonic series thus produced, which depends on the acoustic principles of the tube itself, and is absolutely uninfluenced by the manner in which the tube is bent, forms a natural subdivision in classifying these instruments:--(1) Those in which the lower harmonics from the second to the sixth or eighth are employed, such as the bugle, post-horn, the cornet à pistons, the trombone. (2) Those in which the higher harmonics from the third or fourth to the twelfth or sixteenth are mostly used, such as the French horn and trumpet. (3) Those which give out the fundamental tone and harmonics up to the eighth, such as the tubas and ophicleide.

We thus find a fundamental difference between the trumpet and the bugle as regards the harmonic series. But although, to the casual beholder, these instruments may present a general similarity, there are other important structural distinctions. The tube of the trumpet is cylindrical, widening only at the bell, whereas that of the bugle, as stated above, is conical. Both instruments have cup-shaped mouthpieces outwardly similar. The peculiar shape of the basins, however, at the place where they open into the tube, angular in the trumpet and bevelled in the bugle, taken in conjunction with the bore of the main tube, gives to the trumpet its brilliant blaring tone, and to the bugle its more veiled but penetrating quality, characteristic of the whole family.[2] Only five notes are required for the various bugle-calls, although the actual compass of the instrument consists of eight, of which the first or fundamental, however, being of poor quality, is never used. There are bugles in C and in E flat, but the bugle in B flat is most generally used; the key of C is used in notation.

In order to increase the compass and musical possibilities of the bugle, two methods have been adopted, the use of (1) keys and (2) valves. The application of keys to the bugle produced the Kent bugle, and later the ophicleide. The application of valves produced the family of saxhorns. The use of keys for wood wind instruments was known early in the 15th century,[3] perhaps before. In 1438, the duke of Burgundy paid Hennequin Haulx, instrument-maker of Brussels, 4 _ridres_ a piece for three tenor bombards with keys. In the 16th century we find a key applied to the bass flûte-à-bec[4] and later to the large tenor cornetto.[5] In 1770 a horn-player named Kölbel, belonging to the imperial Russian band, experimented with keys on the trumpet, and in 1795 Weidinger of Vienna produced a trumpet with five keys. In 1810 Joseph Halliday, the bandmaster of the Cavan militia, patented the keyed bugle, with five keys and a compass of twenty-five notes, calling it the "Royal Kent Bugle" out of compliment to the duke of Kent, who was at the time commander-in-chief, and encouraged the introduction of the instrument into the regimental bands. A Royal Kent bugle in C, stamped with Halliday's name as inventor, and made by P. Turton, 5 Wormwood Gate, Dublin, was exhibited by Col. Shaw-Hellier at the Royal Military Exhibition in 1890.[6] The instrument measures 17 in., and the total length of the tubing, including the mouthpiece, 50½ in. The diameter at the mouthpiece is ½ in. and at the bell 5¾ in. The instrument has a chromatic compass of two octaves, [Illustration] the open notes being [Illustration].

Mahillon (op. cit. p. 117) points out that the tonality of the key-bugle and kindred instruments is determined by the second harmonic given out by the open tube, the first key remaining open. To the original instrument specified in the patent, Halliday added a sixth key, which became the first and was in the normal position open; this key when closed gave B flat, with the same series of harmonics as the open tube. The series, however, becomes shorter with each successive key. Thus, on being opened, the second key gives [Illustration], the third key [Illustration], the fourth key [Illustration], the fifth key [Illustration], the sixth key [Illustration]. The bore of the instrument is just wide enough in proportion to its length to make possible the playing of the fundamental tones in the first two series, but these notes are never used, and the harmonics above the sixth are also avoided, being of doubtful intonation. In the ophicleide, the bass of the key-bugle, the bore is sufficiently wide to produce the fundamentals of a satisfactory quality.

The keyed bugle was chiefly used in B flat, a crook for B flat being frequently added to the bugle in C; the soprano bugle in E flat was also much used in military bands.

The origin of the bugle, in common with that of the hunting horn, is of the highest antiquity. During the middle ages, the word "bugle" was applied to the ox and also to its horns, whether used as musical instruments or for drinking. The _New English Dictionary_ quotes a definition of bugle dating from c. 1398: "The Bugle ... is lyke to an oxe and is a fyers [v.04 p.0706] beest."[7] In 1300 a romance[8] contains the word used in both acceptations, "A thousand bugles of Ynde," and "tweye bugle-hornes and a bowe." F. Godefroy[9] gives quotations from early French which show that, as in England, the word bugle was frequently used as an adjective, and as a verb:--"IIII cors buglieres fist soner de randon" (_Quatre fils Aymon_, ed. P. Tarbé, p. 32), and "I grant cor buglerenc fit en sa tor soner" (_Aiol_, 7457, _Société des anciens textes français_). Tubas, horns, cornets and bugles have as common archetype the horn of ram, bull or other animal, whose form was copied and modified in bronze, wood, brass, ivory, silver, &c. Of all these instruments, the bugle has in the highest degree retained the acoustic properties and the characteristic scale of the prototype, and is still put to the original use for giving military signals. The shofar of the ancient Hebrews, used at the siege of Jericho, was a cow's horn (Josh. vi. 4, 5, 8, 13, &c.), translated in the Vulgate _buccina_, in the paraphrase of the Chaldee _buccina ex cornu_. The directions given for sounding the trumpets of beaten silver described in Numbers x. form the earliest code of signals yet known; the narrative shows that the Israelites had metal wind instruments; if, therefore, they retained the more primitive cow's horn and ram's horn (shofar), it was from choice, because they attached special significance to them in connexion with their ritual. The trumpet of silver mentioned above was the _Khatsotsrah_, probably the long straight trumpet or tuba which also occurs among the instruments in the musical scenes of the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians. Gideon's use of a massed band of three hundred shofars to terrify and defeat the Midianites (Judges vii. 16), and Saul's call to arms (1 Sam. xiii. 3) show that the value of the shofar as a military instrument was well understood by the Jews. The cornu was used by the Roman infantry to sound the military calls, and Vegetius[10] states that the tuba and buccina were also used for the same purpose. Mahillon possesses a facsimile of an ancient Etruscan cornu, the length of which is 1.40 m.; he gives its scale,[11] pitched one tone below that of the bugle in E flat, as that of D flat, of which the harmonics [Illustration] from the second to the sixth are available. The same department of the British Museum was enriched in 1904 with a terra-cotta model (fig. 2) of a late Roman bugle (c. 4th century A.D.), bent completely round upon itself to form a coil between the mouthpiece and the bell-end (the latter has been broken off). This precious relic was found at Ventoux in France and has been acquired from the collection of M. Morel. This is precisely the form of bugle now used as a badge by the first battalion of the King's Own Light Infantry.[12] During the middle ages the use of the bugle-horn by knights and huntsmen, and perhaps also in naval warfare, was general in Europe, as the following additional quotations will show: "XXX cors bugleres, fait l'amirax soner" (_Conq. de Jérusalem_, 6811, Hippeau); "Two squyers blewe ... with ij grete bugles hornes" (Caxton, _Chron. Engl. ccix. 192_). The oliphant was a glorified bugle-horn made of rich material, such as ivory, carved and inlaid with designs in gold and silver.