Part 28

That singular American plant the sarracenia, pitcher-plant, hunters-cup, or side-saddle flower, as it is variously called, is a striking instance of the peculiarity referred to in the text, by Mr. Knapp. It is well known to all who are familiar with our native plants, that the hollow leaves of the sarracenia are generally found to contain more or less water, with dead insects of various tribes which have been drowned in the liquid. One might have supposed that this was purely accidental, but it is not impossible that the plant may require for its sustenance a certain amount of animal nourishment. The experiment of an English gardener would lead one to believe that such is the case; taking a hint from the drowned flies usually found in the hollow leaves of the pitcher-plant he tried a singular experiment; he fed the vegetable on beef-steak, small pieces of the beef being laid within the hollow leaves. The superior beauty and size of the particular plant treated in this way, subsequently proved that the surmise was correct, and that the pitcher-plant is to a certain degree, _carnivorous_. Such may very possibly be the case with other flowers which are known to entrap insects of different kinds; they may need these as nourishment. Generally speaking, it is the blossom and not, as in the instance of the Sarracenia, the leaf which allures the insect and thus destroys it; in this sense the hunter’s-cup is more ogre-like than most of its companions possessing the same dangerous power, since it is not only during the season of flowering, but throughout the summer that unwary flies and gnats are drowned in its leafy reservoirs.

NOTE H. THE IVY, (_Hedera Helix_,) p. 64.

The Ivy is found throughout most of the countries of Europe, and also in parts of Asia and Africa. It was one of the sacred plants of the old Egyptians, and held the same character among the Greeks also. In our own western hemisphere the Ivy was unknown until introduced by the colonists from Europe; nor does it seem likely ever to become, like so many other contributions of the old countries, naturalized here; our dryer summers or colder winters, do not apparently agree with it. Possessing one qualification rare among climbing plants, that of being an evergreen, it may, on this account, be considered as the finest of the purely ornamental vines of temperate regions. It is believed to live to a very great age, as the parent stems of vines still attached to buildings some centuries old, are found nearly as large as the trunks of good-sized forest trees.

NOTE I. THE SNOWDROP, page 70.

Mr. Knapp tells us in the text, that in England the Snowdrop will linger longer than any other plant on the site of a deserted garden, outlasting, in this way, as a memorial of human tillage even the rose- bush, the plumb-tree, or the daffodil. With us the pansy, heart’s-ease, or garden-violet appears to have something of the same character; we have found it opening its pretty, lowly blossoms among the grass, the only vestige of a flower-garden, ploughed up more than thirty years earlier.

NOTE J. THE VERVAIN, page 71.

We have in the United States several native Vervains, and one species of European origin; the nettle-leaved Vervain, _Verbena urticifolia_, has become one of our road-side weeds. We are told that verbena was a Latin name given to any sacred herb, and by no means confined to the single family of plants to which the term Vervain is now applied.

NOTE K. THE MISTLETOE, page 71.

The Mistletoe has been sometimes asserted to be unknown in America; but this is an error. The yellow Mistletoe, _Viscum flaviscens_, is found on the trunks of old forest trees, the elm, the oak, and the hickory, in the middle, western, and southern states of the union. This singular parasitic plant has yellowish leaves, with white berries tinged with the same color. _See Gray’s Botany._

NOTE L. DYER’S WEED, WOLD, (_Luteola reseda_,) p. 72.

Dyer’s Weed, Weld, Wold, _Luteola reseda_, has become partially naturalized, here and there, in western New York. It is a plant about three feet high, from whose leaf and stem a yellow coloring matter is obtained, which is preferred to all other substances for giving a brilliant greenish-lemon tint. It is also much used for dyeing silk a golden yellow.

The reader is probably aware that while many minerals and a certain number of animal substances are employed in coloring, the largest portion of our dyes are borrowed from the vegetable kingdom.

NOTE M. SULPHUR, OR BRIMSTONE BUTTERFLY, (_Gonepteryx Rhamni_,) p. 74.

“This is the Brimstone Butterfly, which, gaily painted,

“Soon Explores the tepid noon, And fondly trusts its tender dyes To feeble suns and flattering skies.”

“It has been supposed by some that this early visitant, (also a late one,) is, like the above, a winter survivor; but from the trim of his yellow robes, usually so fresh and glossy, it would seem more likely that, instead of being laid up—not in lavender, but perhaps in ivy—they are of the newest spring fashion. Be this as it may, he is the very pink, or, as he has been more properly considered, the very primrose of Papillons, sometimes to be seen like a living shadow of the primrose’s self, fluttering beside it in the sunny hedge-row, or the sheltered copse. We may know him by the cut of his bright, sulphur-colored pinions—each, instead of being rounded, ending in a smooth tail-like angle.

“Of all the wings of the butterflies, these bear perhaps the closest similitude to floral productions, and on each, as if to perfect the resemblance of the delicate, flower-like coloring, is a reddish spot, an exact copy of that often produced by decay or accident on the surface of a yellow petal. In the beautiful raised bearing of their reverse, the pinions of the “Brimstone” are no less correspondent with the same; but those of the female, which, instead of yellow, are of a greenish white, resemble perhaps yet more nearly, the leaf of a poplar on its under side. The dye of the antennæ—that purplish pink so frequent upon tender leaf and flower-stems—also the clothing of the body, a soft satin down like that by which stalks and seed pods are so often covered, are all alike accordant with the floral character of this most elegant flutterer of the spring. This pretty butterfly comes of a pretty caterpillar, with a smooth green coat, dotted or shagreened with black, and marked by a whitish line along the back and sides. It is said to feed usually on the leaves of the hawthorn and alder.”—_Acheta Domestica._

NOTE N. FURZE, (_Ulex Europæus_,) p. 77.

The Furze, Gorse or Whin, is a low, shrubby plant, common in barren soils throughout western Europe, and belonging to the natural order _leguminosæ_. The yellow flowers, covering broad tracts of untilled land, produce a brilliant and striking effect when in bloom. It is said that Linnæus, when he first saw them, fell on his knees with expressions of delight at their beauty, lamenting that the plant should be wanting in Sweden. It is occasionally cultivated in poor soils for fodder, as horses are fond of it, and the cattle are also fed with it in some parts of England, after it has been bruised in a sort of mill. In tracts of country where wood is scarce, it is frequently used by the cottagers for fuel. The pods of the Whin, or Furze, when ripe burst open with a loud crackling sound, which is described as pleasing, of a warm summer’s day. We Americans have no other acquaintance with the Furze than what is derived from books and prints.

NOTE O. THE MAPLE, (_Acer campestre_,) p. 79.

The common English Maple, _Acer campestre_, is wholly different from our own various species. It is a tree found throughout the greater part of Europe south of Scotland and Sweden, and is observed as far east as the Caucasus. In England, however, it is little more than a bush, or small tree of no great beauty, and whose wood is chiefly used for turning cups and bowls, such as hermits used in days when ballads were written about them. Its leaves are heart-shaped, with either two or five segments which are not serrated; its flowers are erect, in branching corymbs.

In the southern Caucasus this maple is said to become a fine tree, the wood being in request for its hardness; and it is used for purposes less peaceful than the hermits bowl, being worked up into gun-stocks.

The Sycamore-maple, _Acer pseudo-platanus_, is a very different tree, of noble growth, indigenous to southern Europe. This has been transplanted to England where it is much cultivated, and has been called the Sycamore from an erroneous notion that it is the same as the Sycamore of the east. Neither of these Maples will compare, for autumnal coloring, with those of our American woods. The true English Maple alluded to in the text, is described as “shifting its dress to ochery shades, then trying a deeper tint, and lastly assuming an orange vest.” This is pale indeed compared with the Rubens-like coloring of our native trees of the same family.

The Maples are a very numerous and widely diffused tribe of trees. No less than thirty-four species are enumerated by botanists, belonging to different parts of the earth.

NOTE P. AGARICS, page 85.

Scientific writers have examined no less than a thousand different species of Agarics, or those fungi belonging to the class of mushrooms, and probably there are many more than have yet been enumerated. Some few only of these plants are edible; a large proportion are highly poisonous to man, while the character of many more have never yet been ascertained. It is particularly remarkable that those which are found wholesome in one country often become very dangerous in a different soil; in England, for instance, only three kinds are eaten, the _Agaricus campestris_, or common mushroom, the _A. pratensis_, or fairy- ring mushroom, and the _A. Georgii_; but in southern Europe many more are used as food, and among these a number of the same species which in Great Britain have proved very dangerous. In Kamschatka again, the _Agaricus muscarius_, considered a deadly poison in England, is found quite harmless, and is regularly used as food.

The following directions have been given in avoiding poisonous mushrooms; all those possessing either of the characteristics mentioned being dangerous:

1. Such as have a cap very thin compared with the gills.

2. Such as have the stalk growing from one side of the cap.

3. Those in which the gills are of equal length.

4. Such as have a milky juice.

5. Those that readily produce a dark, watery liquid.

6. All those that have a thin, web-like substance wound about the superior portion, or collar of the stalk.

As yet little has been printed regarding our American Agarics, while those of Europe have been very closely studied by many scientific men, who have published the result of their investigations. The following is a list of those mentioned by Mr. Knapp in the volume before the reader: _agaricus fimiputris_; _a. æruginosus_; _a. odorus_; _a. fragrans_; _a. varius_; _a. oreades_; _a. georgii_ or _arvensis_; _a. surrectus_; _a. caseus_, (or _infundibuliformis_;) _a. campestrus_; _a. pratensis_; _a. muscarius_; _hydnum floriforme_, or _h. compactum_; _helvella mitra_, (or _h. crispa_;) _lycoperdon cinereum_, or _didynium cinereum_; _l. fornicatum_, or _geaster fornicatus_; _l. stellatum_, or _g. hygrometicus_; _morchella esculenta_; _phallus impudicus_; _clavaria hypoxylon_.

These Agarics are all found in the United States, with the exception of two species, _a. varius_, and _a. surrectus_, considered as yet unrecognized. _A. georgii_, is regarded as a variety only of _a. arvensis_.

The esculent morell, _morchella esculenta_, noted by Mr. Knapp as very rare in his own neighborhood, is widely diffused throughout the United States. In some parts of the state of New York it is prized as a delicacy for the table, and in the old orchards of Westchester county, for instance, is by no means uncommon.

NOTE Q. THE MARTEN, (_Mustela Martes_,) p. 95.

The American Sable, or Pine Marten, _Mustela Martes_, is believed by some Naturalists to differ decidedly from that of Europe. It is a very active, nocturnal animal, twenty or thirty inches in length, and found in old forests between forty and sixty-eight degrees of north latitude. Trees are exclusively the homes of these pretty little creatures, which are so perseveringly hunted for their beautiful furs. Their skins are sold for one or two dollars apiece, according to their condition, color, &c. As the Martens have litters of six or eight young at a time, they would probably be almost as common in our woods as squirrels, if it were not for the value man has attached to their fur.

NOTE R. THE HEDGEHOG, (_Erinaceus Europæus_,) p. 96.

This is a little animal very common indeed in England, and found in all parts of Europe, excepting the extreme northern countries, Norway, Lapland, &c. It is about nine or ten inches in length; the entire back, and part of the head are covered with sharp brown spines which form its sure defence against many enemies, for when surprised, or attacked, the little creature has the power of rolling itself up into a spiny ball, head, legs, and tail being completely concealed. In order to enable it to take this shape, it has cutaneous muscles of a peculiar mechanism, and the skin of the back is also capable of being drawn up like a hood, or pouch, covering the head and limbs. There is apparently no effort connected with this change of shape, for the little creature will roll itself up in the twinkling of an eye, and frequently, when desirous of descending a wall or abrupt bank, it will run to the edge, and without hesitation, turn itself into a ball and throw itself off, trusting entirely to the strength and elasticity of its spines, for protection in the fall.

The Hedgehog feeds chiefly upon insects, although it also eats fruits and eggs, and will even attack frogs and snakes. These little animals sleep away the winter, and do not awake until the warm weather has fairly set in.

The ignorant are ever making sad mistakes between their true friends and their enemies, and the poor little hedgehog, which is rather serviceable to man than otherwise, by devouring noxious insects, has long been cruelly persecuted by the peasantry of Europe. It has been accused of draining the udders of cows as they lie in the meadows at night, and otherwise injuring them; “all urchin blasts and ill-luck signs,” says the spirit in Cosmos, the urchin being another name for the hedgehog, which, in fact, if it creeps about the cattle, is only in pursuit of the flies that annoy them.

The Porcupine is sometimes called the hedgehog, but very erroneously, being a larger animal, of very different habits, and belonging to a different order.

The nest of the hedgehog is said to be very skillfully prepared, and the female is a particularly watchful mother. A touching incident is related which proves the strength of maternal instinct in these creatures; a nest of small hedgehogs lay in a garden, whence every evening the mother passed by a gate into an adjoining copse in search of food for her young. On one occasion the gate was accidentally closed at an earlier hour than usual, and the poor creature so exhausted herself with fruitless anxiety, and efforts to reach her little ones, that she died before morning, and was found lying lifeless close to the gate.

The flesh of the hedgehog is still eaten in some parts of Europe; it is roasted or baked in pies. In olden times not only the spines of this animal were used medicinally, but wise practitioners declared that “oil in which one of its eyes has been fried, if kept in a brass vessel, will endow the human eye with the faculty of seeing as well by night, as in the day.”

NOTE S. THE SHREW, page 104.

These little creatures, resembling mice in their general appearance, are yet entirely distinct from them, as the cat is well aware, if many human beings are not. Puss has never been known to eat a shrew. In Europe these singular little animals are very common in the fields, and about old walls, heaps of stone, &c. They feed on insects, worms, &c., while the true mice are not insectivorous, but are classed with the rodent order.

NOTE T. THE MOLE, (_talpa Europea_) p. 104.

This animal, so very common in most countries of Europe, is said to have no existence in America. It is at least still a subject of dispute among naturalists whether the true mole of Europe be found on this continent or not.

This creature, with whose name, at least, we are all familiar, has been supposed to be blind; but the notion is erroneous. Eyes are not wanting in the mole, but they are small, buried in the fur, and by a peculiar muscular contrivance they can be pushed forward, or drawn within, so as to be protected from particles of earth. The hearing of the mole is particularly acute, although it has no external shell to the ear. Its sense of smell is also particularly good. It feeds chiefly upon earth- worms, but also eats mice, rats, frogs, lizards, and its appetite is voracious. The subterranean domains of these creatures are extensive and various in their character, their runs, or galleries, being generally about five or six inches below the surface, though often reaching to thrice that depth. They are nocturnal, like so many of the creatures which people the earth; and they are as active in winter as in summer.

The mole is not found in Ireland, or in the northern parts of Scotland. In America, if the true mole be actually wanting, we have other little creatures of the same family, common throughout the country. These are the shrew-moles. They differ widely, however, from the moles of Europe, although possessing the same burrowing habits. The common shrew-mole of America, _Scalops Aquaticus_, is about six inches in length, with a tail one inch long.

Another of this family is a very singular little creature and peculiar to North America. This is the Star-nose, _Condylura Cristata_, sometimes called the Button-nose mole by our farmers. It is common as far south as Virginia, is nocturnal in its habits, and partial to the banks of streams. It is rather larger than the common shrew-mole.

NOTE U. BIRDS OF ENGLAND, page 109.

There are in Europe, some four hundred and sixty-two birds, and in Great Britain three hundred and ten species. In the state of New York alone, we have, according to Dr. De Kay, three hundred and seven species. Mr. Knapp mentions upward of sixty of the English species, and of these only three are generally admitted, we believe, to be common to both continents—the great butcher-bird, _lanius excubiter_, the petrel, and the guillemot, the two last being sea-birds. The tree-creepers, the goldcrests, the ravens, and the magpies, however, are considered very closely similar. We give the names of the birds mentioned by Mr. Knapp. The rook; hedge-sparrow; willow wren; cirl bunting; goldcrest; linnet, or great red-poll; bull-finch; robin; chaffinch; tom-tit; large tom-tit; colemouse; long-tailed tit; house-sparrow; wood-pigeon; jay; goldfinch; whitethroat; blackcap; green-finch; gray flycatcher; house-marten; raven; jackdaw; rock-pigeon; magpie; butcher-bird; petrel; wryneck; swan; nightingale; starling; red-start; solitary thrush; missel-thrush; sparrow-hawk; kestrel; yellow-hammer; swallow; thrush or throstle; wheatear; guillemot; kite; pettychaps; wren; blackbird; cuckoo; lark; tree-creeper; yellow wagtail; halcyon; wood-pigeon; black grous or heath cock; red grous or moor fowl; bustard; fieldfare; crossbill; bunting; gray wagtail; swift; goat-sucker; jacksnipe; common snipe; peewit or lapwing: redwing; wood lark.

The limits allotted to us, not permitting many details on this subject, we shall merely notice briefly some few of these birds, selecting those which are most likely to interest the reader:

_The Rook, corvus frugilegus._—“Every body knows the rook; the dark, the noisy, and sometimes the nest-plundering, or, in the early fields, the contribution-levying rook; but still, notwithstanding, the cheerful, the orderly, the industrious, the discreet, the beneficent rook.” Such is Mr. Mudie’s character of this species of crow, unknown in America. It measures nineteen inches in length; and has a fine plumage of glossy black. Its partiality to old groves and ruins, near country-houses, must be well known to the reader; the “rookeries” of England, however, are said to be decidedly diminishing in their numbers. Many tales are also told of the kindness of rooks to the orphan broods and widowed birds of their flocks; but these have not been very clearly settled.

_The Linnet, fr. linota._—The name of this common European bird is derived from its fondness for linseed. It is a charming singer, its song consisting of “many irregular notes, tastefully put together, in a clear, sonorous tone.” Its general plumage is brown, varied with gray and reddish black; but in the spring, the forehead and breast of the male bird are of a brilliant red coloring, whence one of its names as the greater red-poll. It is said to resemble our purple finch, which is also called the American linnet. Not found in the western hemisphere.

_The Bull-finch, loxia pyrrhula._—A short, thick bird, whose general color is a dark, ashy gray, with carminecolored breast, and white rump. It is a fine singer, readily catching airs and melodies by ear. Like the linnet, it is a very favorite cage-bird in Europe. In its native woods it is a shy creature, partial to shady groves, and seen less frequently than many of its companions, though one of the common birds of Europe. In America, this species of bull-finch is unknown.

_The House-sparrow, pyrgita domestica._—The sparrows of Europe differ essentially from those of America. They have no song, and are seldom seen in flocks. The plumage of the house-sparrow is gray; it frequently builds in the thatched roof of the English cottage, under eaves also, and in chinks in walls. These birds are useful in devouring house-flies; they also feed on some species of butterflies, more especially those whose caterpillars injure the cabbages so frequently, and one writer considers it doubtful if cabbages could be raised at all in England if it were not for the house-sparrow. In Persia, these birds, it is said, are trained to chase butterflies, as a royal sport, just as the hawk was taught to pursue the heron in olden times. The bird is unknown in America.

_The Jay, garrulus glandarius._—Wholly different from our American jays, and much less beautiful in plumage, the jays of Europe do not flock together. They are great chatterers, however, and great mimics also. The color of the European bird is a dark, purplish brown, with blue on the forehead and wings.

_The Wood-dove, columba palumbus._—This is the largest and the handsomest of the British pigeons. It is better known perhaps to the reader, as the ring-dove, and cushat; it is a general favorite in England.

_The Kestrel, falco tinunculus._—One of the smaller falcons of Europe; of reddish brown and cream-colored plumage, marked with dusky spots. Its eye is peculiarly brilliant. It is popularly called “stannel” and “windhover,” the first word meaning “stand-gale,” the last, “hoverer in the wind,” from its remarkable power of poising itself over a particular spot in spite of high winds; at such moments the play of its wings is exceedingly rapid.