Part 73
=Metaurus= (now _Metauro_). A river in Central Italy, where Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, was defeated and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant reinforcements for the latter. The Romans were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother’s camp. This victory saved Rome.
=Meter=, or =Metre=. The French standard of linear measure, intended to be the ten-millionth part of the earth’s quadrant, from the equator to the pole. It is equal to 39.370 British, or 39.369 American inches.
=Methone= (_Modon_). An ancient city of Messenia; was situated on the southwest coast. At the close of the second Messenian war it was given by the victorious Lacedæmonians to the exiled Nauplians, but was restored to its rightful owners by Epaminondas. An unsuccessful attack was made upon Methone by the Athenians in 413 B.C. It was made a free city by the emperor Trajan.
=Métier= (_Fr._). Literally means any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science. The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner: _La guerre est une métier pour les ignorons, et une science pour les habiles gens_, “war in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men it becomes an important branch of science.”
=Metric System.= The French system of measures, founded upon the metre. The system is decimal, and includes measures of length, area, volume, and weight.
=Metulum.= The chief town of the Iapydes in Illyricum; was near the frontier of Liburnia, and was situated on two peaks of a steep mountain. Augustus nearly lost his life in reducing this place, the inhabitants of which fought against him with desperate courage.
=Metz= (anc. _Divodurum_). A city and fortress of Alsace-Lorraine, situated on the Moselle. It was the Roman _Divodurum_, or _Meti_, capital of the Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe (whose name it took at a later date), and of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 6th century; but in 985, Otho II. made it a free imperial city, and thereafter it was used by the German emperors as a barrier against France. It was besieged by Charles VII. in 1444, and could only preserve its freedom by the payment of 100,000 crowns. At length Henry II. obtained possession of it in 1552; and although it was besieged by Charles V. with an army of 100,000 men, his efforts were completely baffled by the skill and energy of the Duke of Guise, and by the courage and constancy of the townsmen; so that the French continued in possession of the town till it, along with Toul and Verdun, was formally secured to them by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the Franco-German war (1870-71) the emperor Napoleon III. arrived at Metz, and assumed the chief command, July 28, 1870. After the disastrous defeats at Wörth and Forbach, August 6, the whole French army, except the corps of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay, was concentrated here, August 10, 11, and by delay was hemmed in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the chief command on August 8, and on August 14 he was attacked at Courcelles, a little east of Metz. On August 16, Bazaine advanced from the fortress, but was attacked by the second army, under command of Prince Frederick Charles, at Vionville, and was compelled to retreat to Metz. But on August 17, Bazaine massed his troops for a decisive conflict, and on August 18 he gave battle at Gravelotte (which see), but was compelled to retreat again, and was shut up in the city. Prince Frederick Charles now surrounded the city, and then began one of the greatest sieges of history. After many brilliant sallies Bazaine was compelled to surrender, October 27, on account of starvation and sickness, with an army including 3 marshals, 66 generals, 173,000 men, including the imperial guard, 400 pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses, and 53 eagles and standards; and on October 29 the Germans entered Metz. All the army that surrendered was compelled to go to Germany as prisoners of war. In May, 1871, Metz was ceded to the German empire by the peace of Frankfort, and its fortifications greatly strengthened.
=Meurtrières= (_Fr._), Small loop-holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle or musket, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place.
=Mexico.= A federal republic of North America, next to the United States. It was conquered by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, and remained as a Spanish dependency for 300 years; and after a long struggle with the mother-country, which commenced in 1810, it shook off the Spanish yoke in 1821, and declared its independence. In 1824 the country was declared a federal republic, with a constitution similar to that of the United States, and its independence was acknowledged by Spain in 1836. About this time Texas, which was then the most northeastern of the Mexican states, withdrew from the federal league and became an independent republic. The Mexican general, Santa Anna, was sent to reduce them to subjection, but he was defeated and taken prisoner by the Texans. In 1845, Texas was annexed to the United States and admitted into the Union as a State. This led to a war between Mexico and the United States, by which the former lost all her northern provinces, consisting of Utah, California, and New Mexico, which were ceded to the United States in 1848. From this time the history of Mexico consists, for the most part, of a long series of insurrections, revolutions, and political changes, which followed each other in rapid succession. Santa Anna, who had been driven into exile shortly after his disgrace in Texas, was recalled and made dictator in 1853. He was succeeded in power by Gens. Carera, Alveraz, Comonfort, and Zulagoa. When the last named was made dictator in 1858, Benito Juarez, the Indian statesman, was declared constitutional president by the liberal party; a civil war ensued, anarchy and confusion reigned supreme in the country; but Juarez, taking advantage of the dissensions between Zulagoa and Miramon, the leaders of two opposite sections of the party that was hostile to his government, at last gained the ascendency, and entered the capital as president of the Mexican republic in January, 1861. In the same year, in consequence of the enormities practiced by Juarez and his partisans, and the outrages committed on European merchants resident in the country, the governments of England, France, and Spain formed a triple alliance, and sent an expedition to Mexico to demand satisfaction for the injuries inflicted on the subjects of their respective countries, and to endeavor to bring about a more settled state of affairs. Vera Cruz was occupied by the allied forces, and this event was followed soon after by the convention of Soledad, signed in February, 1862, in which the government of Juarez engaged to comply with the requisitions of the allies. But the French government disapproved of the convention, and although the forces of England and Spain were withdrawn in compliance with its terms, Napoleon III. determined to advance on the capital, with the view of effecting the overthrow of Juarez and placing the government of the country on a settled basis. The French troops were, however, delayed for some months before Puebla, which capitulated on May 18, 1863, and entered Mexico on the 8th of the following month, amid the acclamations of the people, who had become weary of the intestine strife that had so long convulsed the land, and which had been produced by the jealousy and rivalry of the party leaders who had aspired to the direction of the government. This event was followed by the proclamation of the empire and the nomination of Maximilian, the brother of the present emperor of Austria, as the first emperor of Mexico under the new régime. The republican leaders were violently opposed to this measure, and Maximilian by his severity towards them alienated the affections of many of his original supporters. At length, on the withdrawal of the French troops at the demand of the United States, the republicans advanced into Central Mexico. Maximilian with a Mexican force vainly attempted to oppose them, and was captured and shot at Queretaro, June 19, 1867.
=Mézières.= An ancient and well-built town of France, the capital of the department of Ardennes, situated on a peninsula formed by the Meuse. In 1520, the Chevalier Bayard successfully defended this place against 40,000 Spaniards under the Count of Nassau, and in 1815 it held out for two months against the Prussians, but was at length obliged to capitulate.
=Miami Indians.= A tribe of aborigines, of Algonkin stock, who formerly resided in Ohio and Indiana. In the war of 1812, they fought against the United States as allies of the British. In 1846 the majority of the tribe removed to Kansas, on a reservation in which State a remnant still resides.
=Michigan.= One of the Northern Central States of the United States. It was colonized by the French, near Detroit, in the latter half of the 17th century, but, like other French colonies in America, did not progress rapidly. At the peace of 1763, it came, with the other French possessions in North America, under the dominion of Great Britain, and so remained till the breaking out of the American Revolution, when it passed to the United States. On the expulsion of the French, the celebrated Indian chief Pontiac seized the occasion to rid the country of the hated whites by a general uprising, and simultaneous attacks on all the forts of the English on the lakes. Mackinaw was taken by stratagem, and the garrison mercilessly butchered. Detroit was besieged for some months by Pontiac, with 600 Indians; but it held out till the Indian allies, becoming weary of the siege, retired and left Pontiac no choice but to make peace. The British surrendered Detroit to the United States in 1796. In 1805, Michigan, which up to that period had been a part of the Northwest Territory, was formed into a separate government. In 1812, it became the scene of some stirring events in the war with Great Britain. Lying contiguous to Canada, it was invaded in the very commencement of that struggle, and its capital (Detroit) surrendered August 15, 1812, by Gen. Hull, under circumstances which led to his displacement from his command. Previous to this Fort Mackinaw had been taken by the enemy. In January, 1813, a cruel massacre by the savages of a party of American prisoners took place at Frenchtown, but soon after, Gen. Harrison drove the enemy out of the Territory of Michigan, and removed the seat of war into Canada. Michigan became an independent member of the American Confederacy in 1837. During the civil war, she contributed greatly to the cause of the Union, and sent over 90,000 men to the field.
=Micmacs.= A tribe of Indians numbering about 4000, who reside principally in New Foundland, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. They were formerly faithful allies of the French in their wars with the New England colonies, and with the English, against whom they maintained a hostile attitude until about 1760.
=Middle Ages.= The ages or period of time about equally distant from the decline of the Roman empire and the revival of letters in Europe, or from the 8th to the 15th century of the Christian era.
=Middle Assembling-bar.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.
=Middle-chest.= The front ammunition-chest on the body of the caisson,--so called because it is between the hind chest and the limber-chest when the caisson is limbered.
=Middle-man.= The man who occupies a central position in a file of soldiers.
=Midea.= A town in Argolis, of uncertain site; is said to have been originally called Persepolis, because it had been fortified by Perseus. It was destroyed by the Argives.
=Midianites.= An Arab race, descended, according to Scripture, from Midian, the son of Abraham by Keturah. They occupied the greater part of the country between the north side of the Arabian Gulf and Arabia Felix as far as the Plains of Moab. The Midianites were very troublesome neighbors to the Israelites till Gideon’s victory over them (about 1249 B.C.), after which they gradually disappeared.
=Mignon= (_Fr._). Picked soldier, now called _élite_.
=Milan= (_Mediolanum_, capital of the ancient Liguria). A city of Italy, the capital of the province of Lombardy, 78 miles northeast from Turin; is reputed to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B.C. It was conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus, 222 B.C. It was the seat of government of the Western empire in 286; plundered by Attila in 452; taken by the emperor Frederick I., 1158; it rebelled and was taken by Frederick and its fortifications destroyed in 1162; but was rebuilt and fortified in 1169. The Milanese were defeated by the emperor Frederick II. in 1237; and the city was conquered by Louis XII. of France in 1499. The French were expelled by the Spaniards in 1525, and the city annexed to the crown of Spain in 1540; ceded to Austria, 1714. It was conquered by the French and Spaniards in 1743; reverted to Austria upon Sicily and Naples being ceded to Spain in 1748; seized by the French, June 30, 1796, retaken by the Austrians, 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. The Milanese revolted against the Austrians, March 18, 1848, but submitted August 5, 1848. Another insurrection was attempted in 1853, but with disastrous results. On June 8, 1859, by the peace of Villa Franca, Lombardy was annexed to Piedmont, and Victor Emmanuel became sovereign of Milan.
=Milazzo= (anc. _Mylæ_). A fortified seaport on the north coast of Sicily, 18 miles west of Messina. It was founded about 700 B.C., and has been the scene of many battles. It was taken by Laches in 427 B.C. It was off Mylæ that the Romans, under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took 50 of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sextus Pompeius, 36 B.C. On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi with 2500 men defeated 7000 Neapolitans, at Milazzo, and compelled the garrison to evacuate the fortress.
=Mileage.= An allowance for traveling, as so much by the mile; especially in the United States, an allowance made to military officers to defray the expenses of their journeys on duty when not traveling with troops.
=Milesian.= A native or inhabitant of Ireland, descended according to the legendary history of the country from King Milesius of Spain, whose two sons conquered the island 1300 B.C., and established a new order of nobility.
=Milesian.= Pertaining to Ireland, from the tradition that King Milesius of Spain once conquered the country.
=Miletus.= A flourishing Greek city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, was situated on the north side of the peninsula of Mt. Grion, at the entrance of the Gulf of Latmus, nearly opposite the mouth of the Meander. At the time of the Ionian emigration to Asia Minor it existed as a town, but when the Ionians arrived in Asia, Neleus and a company of his followers seized Miletus, put to death all the male inhabitants, who were Carians or Leleges, and took the women for their wives. Miletus became for a time a prosperous city under the rule of Lydia and Persia, but in 500 B.C. it revolted against Persia, and after repeated defeats in the field, the city was besieged by land and by sea, and finally taken by storm in 494 B.C. The city was plundered and its inhabitants massacred, and the survivors were transplanted to a place called Ampe, near the mouth of the Tigris. The town itself was given up to the Carians. Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, Miletus threw off the yoke imposed upon her by Athens, and in a battle fought under the very walls of the city, the Milesians defeated their opponents; the Athenian admiral, Phrynichus, abandoned the enterprise. In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great took the city by assault, and destroyed a part of it, but it continued to flourish, until it was destroyed by the Turks and other barbarians.
=Milford Haven.= A town of Wales, in Pembrokeshire, 6 miles northwest from Pembroke. Here the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., landed on his way to encounter Richard III., whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485.
=Milice.= An old term for militia.
=Militancy.= Warfare. This term is obsolete.
=Militant.= Engaged in warfare; fighting; combating; serving as a soldier.
=Militantly.= In a militant manner. This term is rarely used.
=Militar.= Military. This term is obsolete.
=Militarily.= In a military or soldierly manner.
=Militarist.= One devoted to military pursuits.
=Military.= Pertaining to soldiers, to arms, or to war; having to do with the affairs of war; as, a military parade or appearance; military discipline. Engaged in the service of soldiers or arms; as, a military man. Warlike; becoming a soldier; as, military bravery, military virtue. Derived from the service or exploits of a soldier; as, military renown. Conformable to the customs or rules of armies or militia; as, the conduct of the officer was not military. Performed or made by soldiers; as, a military election.
=Military.= The whole body of soldiers; soldiery; militia; the army.
=Military Academies.= The great improvements made in the art of war in modern times, in weapons, drill, discipline, etc., has made warfare more of a science and less of a trial of brute force than formerly, and hence the necessity for a body of trained officers capable of moving, directing, and bringing into effective operation all the appliances of war with which modern armies are furnished. As this special training cannot be obtained at ordinary educational establishments, special schools for the purpose have been established in all civilized countries. A few of them are here noted.
GREAT BRITAIN.--The _Royal Military Academy_, an establishment at Woolwich, through which must pass all candidates for the artillery and engineers. It was instituted in 1741, but the present structure was not erected until 1805. It usually contains about 200 cadets. The age of admission is sixteen, and the vacancies are open to public competition. The parents or guardians have to make annual payments for the support of the cadets as long as they remain at the academy, the amount being greater for the son of a civilian than of a military or naval officer. When the term of instruction--which comprises the subjects of a thorough general education, the higher mathematics, fortification, gunnery, and military duty--is completed, the cadets compete for vacancies in the engineers and artillery, those who pass the best examination being allowed a choice of either branch of the service. All who obtain commissions in the engineers proceed to Chatham for further instruction in their professional duties; the artillery cadets at once join the artillery as lieutenants.
_Royal Military College, Sandhurst_, is an institution for the training of candidates for commissions in the cavalry and infantry. The course is limited to one year immediately before entering the army, and the subjects of instruction confined to the higher mathematics, modern languages, and military science. Entrance is on the nomination of the commander-in-chief; and the payment by the cadets’ parents or guardians varies according to their circumstances and rank. No payment is made for what are called “Queen’s Cadets,” who must be orphans. Commissions in the cavalry and infantry are given to the cadets in the order of merit at the end of the year.
The _Staff College_ was founded in 1858, about 2 miles from Sandhurst, for the purpose of giving higher instruction to 30 officers aspiring to appointments on the staff. To be entitled to compete for entrance, an officer must have been three years in active service, must have passed the qualifying examination for a captaincy, and must have the recommendation of his commanding officer. A very strict examination decides which among the competitors shall be admitted to the college, one only being eligible from any battalion. The course lasts two years. At the end of each year there is an examination; that of the second fixing the order of the candidates’ choice for staff employment. After passing the Staff College the officer is attached for duty, for a short period, to each of the arms with which he may not have already served. He then becomes eligible for appointment to the staff, as opportunity may occur. There are also the Royal School of Military Engineers at Chatham, for the instruction of engineer officers, the Royal Military School at Dublin, and professional schools for officers and enlisted men, as the School of Musketry at Hythe, and the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness.
FRANCE.--The celebrated _Polytechnic School_ at Paris was established by the National Convention, September 28, 1794. By a decree of July 16, 1804, Napoleon placed it under a military régime. No attempt being made to impart a general education, candidates are required to have a thorough general knowledge before they are admitted. The preliminary examination of candidates for admission comprises mathematics, physics, chemistry, history, German, etc.; in fact, the candidate to be successful should have the degree of Bachelor of Science. Admission is open to competition; a board of examiners passes through the country once every year, and examines all who present themselves, possessing the requisite qualifications of age, etc. A list is made out from the proceedings of the board, and the number of candidates highest in order of merit for whom there are vacancies admitted. The age of admission is from sixteen to twenty years, or if the candidate is in the army, to twenty-five. This school prepares students for various branches of the public service, for the staff, engineers, artillery, for the corps of hydrographical engineers, engineers of roads and bridges and of mines, the department of powder and saltpetre, etc. The number of cadets is usually about 350, and the course of instruction two years. After the final examination the first 30 or 40 candidates usually select civil employment under the government, those next in merit choose the artillery and engineers, and are sent to the School of Application, to pass through a technical course. The remaining students either fail to qualify, and leave the school, or receive commissions in the line, subordinate situations in the government service, civil or colonial, or they retire into civil life altogether.
The _Special Military School_ at St. Cyr, near Versailles, was established for the instruction of candidates for commissions in cavalry and infantry. The age of admission is the same as for the Polytechnic School, and pupils are entitled to partial or entire state aid if they need it, as are also those of the Polytechnic. The course of instruction is two years, at the end of which time the more promising students pass to the Staff School, and thence, after a thorough course, to the _état-major_ of the army; the remaining students pass as subalterns into the cavalry and infantry, selecting the arm of the service in which they desire to serve according to the order of merit in which they graduate. There are also the School of Application for Engineers and Artillery, the School of Application for the Staff, the Cavalry School at Saumur, for one year’s instruction to officers of that arm, and the School of Musketry at Vincennes.