Part 22

=Chapultepec.= A strong fortress of Mexico, situated about 2 miles southwest of the metropolis. It consists of an eminence rising to the height of about 150 feet, with a strong castle on top. During the Mexican war it was deemed necessary by Gen. Scott, for strategic reasons, to capture this last outward defense of the capital prior to the attack on the city itself. This was gallantly effected on September 13, 1847, and next day the city was entered by the American forces, thus virtually ending the war. Preparations for the assault were commenced on the night of September 11, and before the evening of the 12th, owing to the skillful arrangement of Gen. Scott’s artillery, the exterior defenses began to give way. Next day was determined on for the attack. The American forces were so placed that the assault could be made simultaneously from different sides at a preconcerted signal, which would be the temporary cessation of the cannonade from their batteries. It was given, and the attacking forces advanced, Gen. Quitman’s division from the south, and Gen. Pillow from the wooded slope on the west, Gen. Smith’s brigade supporting Quitman, Pillow supported by the division of Gen. Worth, and the batteries throwing shells into the fort over the heads of their friends. Under a heavy fire of musketry the attacking forces advance, and step by step they gain every disputed point, scaling-ladders are brought into requisition, an entrance effected, and the defeated Mexicans, dislodged and retreating, are pursued to the very gates of their capital. The American loss during the three days was 833 killed and wounded.

=Charcoal.= One of the ingredients of gunpowder. It is made by distilling small sticks of wood in closed retorts. Willow, alder, poplar, and dogwood are some of the woods used. In distilling the heat should be kept below redness. Charcoal should be light in weight, and have a velvety fracture. It inflames at about 460° Fahr. Its composition and properties vary with the nature of the wood and mode of distillation employed.

Charcoal obtained from light wood is the best for gunpowder, as it is more combustible and easy to pulverize, and contains less earthy matters. Willow and poplar are used for this purpose in the United States and black elder in Europe. The wood must be sound and should not be more than 3 or 4 years old, and about 1 inch in diameter; branches larger than this should be split up. It is cut in the spring when the sap runs freely, and is immediately stripped of its bark. The smaller branches are used for fine sporting powder.

The operation of charring may be performed in pits, but the method now almost universally used in making charcoal for gunpowder is that of _distillation_. For this purpose the wood is placed in an iron vessel, generally of a cylindrical form, to which a cover is luted; an opening with a pipe is made to conduct off the gaseous products, and the wood is thus exposed to the heat of a furnace. The progress of distillation is judged of by the color of the flame and smoke, and sometimes by _test-sticks_, which are introduced through tubes prepared for the purpose.

_Properties._--The charcoal thus obtained should retain a certain degree of elasticity, and should have a brown color, the wood not being entirely decomposed. As it readily absorbs one-twentieth of its weight of moisture, which diminishes its inflammability, it should be made only in proportion as it is required for use. Wood generally contains 52 per cent. of carbon, but distillation furnishes not more than 30 to 40 per cent. of charcoal.

As it is desirable to have charcoal for gunpowder very combustible, it must be prepared at a low temperature, and must be light.

_Accidents._--When recently prepared charcoal is pulverized and laid in heaps, it is liable to absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to cause spontaneous combustion. This has been the cause of serious accidents at powder-mills, and hence it is important not to pulverize charcoal until it has been exposed to the air for several days. When charcoal has not absorbed moisture, and is mixed with oxidizing substances, it may be inflamed by violent shocks or by friction. This is the principal cause of the accidents which occur in the preparation of explosive mixtures which contain charcoal. See GUNPOWDER.

=Chard.= A town of England, in Somersetshire. Here the royalists were defeated in the civil wars between Charles I. and the Parliament.

=Charenton.= A town of France, in the department of the Seine. It stands on the Marne, over which there is a bridge, which was frequently the scene of bloody conflicts between the citizens and the soldiers during the French revolutions. It now forms a portion of the fortifications of Paris.

=Charge.= The act of rushing on the enemy with a view to come to close fighting. It is also sometimes applied to the temporary command of a detachment, troop, company, or battery. A charge likewise means the statement of the crime for which an officer or soldier is brought before a court-martial.

=Charge.= The quantity of powder with which a piece of artillery is loaded. The charge corresponding to the maximum velocity in the projectile is called the _maximum charge_. The longer the gun the greater the maximum charge. In the early days of artillery, when powder was used in the form of _dust_, a very large charge was necessary. After the introduction of grained powder it was reduced gradually to about one-fourth the weight of the shot. At the time of the recent departures in ordnance, the charge for smooth-bore guns was from one-fifth to one-eighth the weight of the projectile; for howitzers, from one-eighth to one-twentieth; for mortars the charge varied with the range, the largest being about one-ninth. For rifle guns the disproportion was greater than for smooth-bores, the average being about one-tenth. In small-arms, the charge for the old smooth-bore musket was about one-third the weight of the ball. When the rifle was introduced, this proportion was retained till the oblong bullet began to be used, when the charge was relatively much diminished, till it fell to about one-tenth. The tendency lately has been to increase it. In some of the best-known rifles of the present day the charge is about one-fifth,--a majority use more than one-sixth. The same tendency is still more observable in heavy ordnance. The largest _Krupp_, _Woolwich_, and _Armstrong_ guns use a charge greater than _one-fourth_ the weight of the projectile.

=Charge.= The position of a weapon fitted for attack; as, to bring a weapon to the charge.

=Charge.= In heraldry, the figures represented on a shield are called charges, and a shield with figures upon it is said to be charged. The charges in a shield ought to be few in number, and strongly marked, both as regards their character and the mode of their representation. The family shield belonging to the head of the house almost always is simpler,--_i.e._, has fewer charges than the shields of collaterals, or even of junior members.

=Charger= (Fr. _cheval de bataille_). A horse kept by an officer for military purposes.

=Chariot.= In antiquity, a war car or vehicle.

=Charleroi.= A strongly fortified town of Belgium, in Hainaut. This place was fortified by Vauban. Several great battles have been fought near this town, especially in 1690 and 1794. Charleroi was besieged by the Prince of Orange, 1672 and 1677; but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815.

=Charleston.= A port of entry and the chief city of South Carolina, founded in 1672. On Sullivan’s Island, about 7 miles below, communicating with the harbor, a garrison of about 400 Americans under Col. Moultrie sustained an assault from 9 British ships of war, and gallantly repulsed them, on June 28, 1776. The city was afterwards besieged, and after a gallant resistance of nearly six weeks surrendered to the British, May 12, 1780, being held by them till 1782. In the civil war (1861-65) it was here the first gun was fired, which resulted in the reduction of the famous Fort Sumter. In the latter part of the war it was bombarded and besieged by the Federal troops. Its evacuation by the Confederates and its occupation by the Federals followed, February 18, 1865.

=Chase.= In gunnery, is the conical part of the gun in front of the reinforce.

=Chase-ring.= In gunnery, is a band at the front end of the chase.

=Chassepot.= A species of rifle. See SMALL-ARMS.

=Chasseurs.= A French word signifying “hunters,” applied in various forms to light troops in the French service, organized at different times, either as infantry or cavalry, as _chasseurs à pied_, _de Montague_, _de Vincennes_, for infantry, and _chasseurs à cheval_, _d’Afrique_, _Algeriens_, etc., for cavalry. They have organizations in other armies also corresponding to these, such as the _jägers_ in the Austrian army, and the _cacciatore dei Alpi_ of the Garibaldian troops in the Italian war of 1859-60.

=Chassis.= A traversing frame or movable railway, along which the carriage of a heavy gun in barbette, or casemate, moves backward and forward in action. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, SEA-COAST CARRIAGES.

=Chastleton.= A parish of England, in Oxfordshire, 5 miles from Chipping Norton. Here, in 1016, Canute defeated Edmund Ironside.

=Châteaudun.= An old city in Northwest France, the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died in 1468. Here were massacred July 20, 1183, about 7000 Brabançons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired to exterminate the Albigenses by the Cardinal Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1181. They had become the scourge of the country, and the “Capuchons” were organized for their destruction. Châteaudun was captured by the Germans after a severe conflict of about 9 hours, October 18, 1870. Barracks had been erected in the town, and the Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re-occupied by the French, November 6.

=Château Thierry.= A town of France, in the department of Aisne. It is built on the slope of a hill, capped by the ruins of a castle, which is said to have been erected by Charles Martel in 730. In 1814 this place was the scene of several conflicts between the allied army and the French troops.

=Chatham.= A town of England, in the county of Kent, on the Medway. It is a principal station of the royal navy. There is a fine station and military arsenal close to Chatham, containing vast magazines and warehouses, in which there are all kinds of stores, and where all the operations necessary for building and fitting out ships of war are carried on. There are also extensive barracks for infantry, royal marines, artillery, and engineers. Chatham is defended by forts on the heights, by which it is partly surrounded. There are also very extensive fortifications about Chatham, called the Lines, which are defended by ramparts, palisades, and a broad, deep ditch. On June 10, 1667, the Dutch fleet under Admiral Ruyter sailed up to Chatham and burnt several men-of-war. The entrance into the Medway is now defended by Sheerness and other forts.

=Chatillon-sur-Seine.= A town of France, department of Côte-d’Or, 43 miles north-northwest of Dijon, on the Seine. Here a congress was held by the four great powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, February 5, 1814; the negotiations for peace were broken off on March 19, following.

=Chattanooga.= A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war it was the scene of many exciting incidents between the contending forces. It was attacked by Gen. Negley in June, 1862; occupied by Gen. Rosecrans, July, 1863, and in the same year were fought in its vicinity a succession of the most momentous battles of that eventful epoch, commencing September 23, 1863, with Gen. Grant’s attack on Gen. Bragg. The movements were under direction of Gens. Sherman and Thomas, and resulted, after three days’ severe fighting around Chattanooga, Missionary Ridge, and Lookout Mountain, in the total defeat of the Confederates, and their pursuit back into Georgia.

=Chaumont, Treaty of.= Entered into between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively March 1, 1814. This treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April 11, following, by which Napoleon renounced his sovereignty over France.

=Chausses.= In the armor of the Middle Ages, were defense-pieces for the legs. Some were made of padded and quilted cloth, with metal studs; some of chain-metal, some of riveted plates, and some of banded mail. It was not unusual to fasten them by lacing behind the leg.

=Chauvinisme= (_Fr._). An exaggerated idea of the qualities of a leader, as Chauvin, a character in a French play (from whom the name is derived), is represented to have had of his leader, Bonaparte.

=Checky.= In heraldry, when the field of any charge is composed of small squares of different tinctures, it is said to be _checky_.

=Cheeks.= In the construction of artillery-carriages, are the parts between which the piece is placed and upon which the trunnions are supported. See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Chelone=, or =Tortoise=. In military antiquity, the form of battle adopted by the Greeks in besieging fortified towns. It served to protect the besiegers in their approach to the walls. This invention was formed by the soldiers placing their shields over their heads, in a sloping position, similar to the tiles of a house. The first rank stood erect, the second stooped a little, the third still more, and the last rank knelt. They were thus protected from the missile weapons of the foe, as they advanced or stood under the walls of an enemy. The chelone was similar to the _testudo_ of the Romans. See TESTUDO.

=Chelsea.= A parish of England, in Middlesex, on the Thames. Chelsea Hospital is the great national asylum for decayed and maimed soldiers, and one of the noblest institutions of the kind in Europe. The institution was founded by Charles II. in 1682. Connected with the hospital is the Military Asylum, a noble establishment, founded in 1801, for the education and maintenance of the children of soldiers. See ASYLUM.

=Chemin-des-Rondes= (_Fr._). A beam from 4 to 12 feet wide, at the foot of the exterior slope in a permanent fortification. It is sometimes covered in front by a hedge, or low wall, or small parapet of earth.

=Chemise.= In mediæval fortification, an additional escarp or counter-guard wall, covering the lower part of the escarp.

=Cherasco.= A town of Piedmont, situated on the Tanaro. A peace was concluded here between Louis XIII. of France and the Duke of Savoy, in 1631. On April 26, 1796, the place was taken by the French, and here, three days after, the “Armistice of Cherasco” was concluded between the Sardinian commissioners and Napoleon, by which the latter obtained the right of free passage for his troops through the Sardinian states; and the treaty that followed gave to the French republic Savoy, Nice, and the possessions of Piedmont to the westward of the highest ridge of the Alps.

=Cheraw.= A village of Chesterfield Co., S. C. It was a Confederate depot of supplies during the civil war, and was captured with all its stores by Gen. Sherman, March 3, 1865.

=Cherbourg.= A fortified seaport town and important naval station of France, department of Manche, on the English Channel. Edward III. of England unsuccessfully laid siege to Cherbourg in 1346, but in 1418 it was given up to the British. The French regained it in 1450, but the English again took it in 1758.

=Cheriton Down.= In the county of Hants, England. Here Sir William Waller defeated the royalists under Lord Hopton, May 29, 1644.

=Cherokee Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly occupied the southern portion of the Appalachian Mountains, and a large tract of country on both sides of the range. In 1838 they were removed by the U. S. government to the west of the Mississippi, into what is now Indian Territory, and the portion of the tribe that now remains have a civilized government and a written language. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Cherusci.= One of the most celebrated of all the German tribes at the time of Cæsar. Being excited to hostilities by the tyranny and rapacity of the Romans, they entered into a confederation with the neighboring tribes, and, under their leader Arminius, defeated a Roman army at Teutoburg Forest, in A.D. 9. Germanicus, a Roman general, afterwards tried to avenge this disgrace to their honor by subduing them, but was unsuccessful. Owing to their own internal dissensions they were subsequently subdued by the Chatti, another German tribe.

=Chesses.= Are the platforms which form the flooring of military bridges. They consist of two or more planks, ledged together at the edges by dowels or pegs.

=Chest, Ammunition-.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, THE CAISSON.

=Chest, Military.= Is a technical name for money and negotiable securities carried by an army, and intended to defray its current expenses. In the British military system this department is managed by the commissariat; in the United States, by the paymaster-general and commissary-general.

=Chester.= A city of England, in the county of Cheshire. The British _Caerleon_ and the Roman _Deva_, the station of the Twentieth Legion, _Valeria Victrix_, quitted by them about 477. The city was first built by Edelfleda about 908. Chester was ravaged by the Danes in 980; taken after three months’ siege for the Parliament in 1645. A projected attack of Fenians on Chester Castle was defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and the arrival of the military, February 11-12, 1867.

=Cheval-de-frise.= A piece of timber traversed with wooden spikes, pointed with iron, 5 or 6 feet long, used to defend a passage, stop a breach, or make a retrenchment to stop cavalry.

=Chevalet= (_Fr._). A sort of bell-tent, formerly used in the French service, when an army encamped. It resembled in some degrees the wigwam of an Indian.

=Chevalier= (_Fr._). A horseman; a knight. A member of certain orders of knighthood. In heraldry, a horseman armed at all points.

=Chevet= (_Fr._). A small wedge which is used in raising a mortar. It is placed between the frame and swell of the mortar.

=Cheviot Hills.= A mountain-range extending along the border between Scotland and England; the scene of many conflicts between the Scotch and English.

=Chevrette.= An engine for raising guns or mortars into their carriages.

=Chevron.= The arrow-headed stripes on the arm, by which the rank of a non-commissioned officer is indicated.

=Chevron.= In heraldry, is an ordinary representing the rafters of a house, and supposed to betoken the accomplishment of some memorable work, or the completion of some business of importance, generally the foundation of his own family by the bearer.

=Cheyenne Indians.= A tribe of aborigines dwelling east of the Rocky Mountains, and divided into three bands. For numbers, etc., see INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chiari.= A town of Northern Italy, near the Oglio. In 1701, Marshal Villeroi was near this town defeated by Prince Eugène.

=Chicane.= To dispute every foot of ground, by taking advantage of natural inequalities, etc.

=Chickahominy.= A river in Eastern Virginia, which, rising about 16 miles northwest of Richmond, flows southeastwardly into the James. Along the margins of the river was the scene of Gen. McClellan’s operations in 1862.

=Chickamauga.= A village of Hamilton Co., Tenn. During the civil war a continuous series of combats were fought here, between the forces of Gens. Rosecrans and Bragg, but without decisive results, September 19-20, 1863.

=Chickasaw Indians.= A warlike tribe of aborigines which formerly occupied Alabama and a portion of Mississippi. They removed into the Indian Territory in 1837. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Chief.= The head or leader of any band or community; a commander.

=Chief.= In heraldry, an ordinary formed by a horizontal line occupying the upper part of the escutcheon. Any object borne in the upper or chief part of the shield is said to be _in chief_, though the chief be not divided off from the rest of the field as a separate portion.

=Chief of Staff.= In the U. S. service a chief of staff with the rank of brigadier-general was provided by law for the lieutenant-general commanding the army. The senior staff-officer of a general is sometimes designated as the chief of staff. See OFFICERS, STAFF-, and STAFF.

=Chieftain.= A captain, leader, or commander; a chief; the head of a troop, army, or clan.

=Chieftaincy.= Chieftainship. The rank, office, or quality of a chieftain.

=Chili.= An independent republic of South America, bordering on the Pacific Ocean. It was invaded by Almagro in 1535, he being sent by Pizarro to subdue the country. In the 16th and 17th centuries violent contests raged between the Spaniards and Indians, both parties suffering severely. The country continued a vice-royalty of Spain till 1810, when a revolution commenced which terminated in its independence in 1817.

=Chilled Iron.= Cast iron hardened by pouring it into iron molds. Much used in manufacturing armor-piercing projectiles. The celebrated Palliser shot is of this kind.

=Chilled Shot.= See PROJECTILES.

=Chillianwallah, Battle of.= In India, between the Sikh forces in considerable strength and the British commanded by Lord (afterwards Viscount) Gough, fought January 13, 1849. The Sikhs were completely routed, but the loss of the British was very severe. On February 21, Lord Gough attacked the Sikh army under Shere Singh in its position at Goujerat, with complete success, and the whole of the enemy’s camp fell into the hands of the British.

=China.= The “Celestial Empire,” in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C.; by others to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 B.C. We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 B.C. Towards the close of the 7th century B.C. the history of China becomes more distinct. Thirty-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. See important cities of China throughout this work.

=China, Great Wall of.= One of the most remarkable structures known in history, supposed to have been erected about 220 B.C. by the first emperor of the Tsin dynasty as a protection against the invasions of the Tartars. It traverses the northern boundary of China, and extends about 1250 miles. Including a parapet of 5 feet, the total height is 20 feet, thickness of base 25 feet, and at the top 15 feet. Towers or bastions occur at intervals of about 100 yards. Earth inclosed in brick-work forms the mass of the wall, but for more than one-half its length it is little else than a heap of gravel and rubbish.

=Chinese Fire.= A pyrotechnic composition, consisting of 16 parts of gunpowder, 8 of nitre, 3 of charcoal, 3 of sulphur, and 3 of iron-borings.

=Ching-Hai.= A fortified seaport town of China. At this place, in October, 1841, the Chinese were signally defeated by the British.

=Ching-Kiang-Foo.= A fortified city of China, on the Yang-tse-Kiang River. It was taken by the British, after a determined resistance on the part of the Mantchoo garrison, July 21, 1842.

=Chinook.= An artificial language or jargon originated by the Hudson Bay Company for communicating with different tribes of Indians. It consists of about a hundred words, some coined, some French, and some of Indian origin. It is still extensively used as a sort of court language by the different tribes along the Pacific coast, from California to Behrings Strait.

=Chinook Indians.= A collection of races of Indian tribes inhabiting the Lower Columbia in Washington Territory and Oregon.