Part 21

=Catalonia.= An old province of Western Spain, was settled by the Goths and Alani about 409; conquered by the Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne; united with Aragon in 1137. It formed part of the Spanish marches and the territory of the Count of Barcelona.

=Catania= (anc. _Catana_). A town near Mount Etna, Sicily. The ancient city was founded by the Phœnicians or Greeks, and was nearly as old as Rome. It was taken by the Athenian general Nicias about 413 B.C., and was an important city under the Romans. In August, 1802, the town was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He was captured on August 29.

=Cataphract.= The old Roman term for a horseman in complete armor.

=Cataphracta.= In the ancient military art, a piece of heavy defensive armor, formed of cloth or leather, fortified with iron scales or links, wherewith sometimes only the breast, sometimes the whole body, and sometimes the horse too, was covered.

=Catapult= (Lat. _catapulta_). An engine of war used by the ancients, somewhat resembling a cross-bow. In the catapult a string or rope, suddenly freed from great tension, gave a powerful impulse to an arrow placed in a groove. There were great catapults, fixed upon a scaffold with wheels, which were used in sieges, and small ones, carried in the hand, which were employed in the field.

=Cataract.= A portcullis.

=Catawba Indians.= A tribe of aborigines who formerly inhabited the Carolinas. A remnant still exists on a reservation on the Catawba River. See INDIANS AND THEIR AGENCIES.

=Cateau Cambresis.= In Northern France, where on April 2 and 3, 1559, peace was concluded between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries to Philip.

=Caterva.= In ancient military writings, a term used in speaking of the Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word is also used to denote a party of soldiers in disarray; in opposition to _cohort_ or _turma_, which signify in good order.

=Cat-o’-nine-tails.= An instrument of punishment formerly used to flog offenders in the army, consisting of nine pieces of line or cord fastened to a piece of thick rope, and having three knots at intervals.

=Cattaro.= A fortified town of Dalmatia, Austria, at the bottom of the Gulf of Cattaro. This town was captured by the British in 1813, and till 1814 belonged successively to Austria and France.

=Catti.= An ancient German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the Romans; absorbed by the Franks in the 3d century.

=Caudine Forks.= Two narrow mountain-gorges or defiles near the town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium. They are celebrated in connection with a humiliating disaster which the Roman army suffered in 321 B.C.

=Caution.= An explanation given previous to the word of command, by which soldiers are called to attention, that they may execute any given movement with unanimity and correctness.

=Cavalcade.= In military history, implies a pompous procession of horsemen, equipages, etc., by way of parade, to grace a triumph, public entry, or the like.

=Cavalier.= Originally meant any horse-soldier, but in English history is the name given to the party which adhered to King Charles I., in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the Parliament.

=Cavalier.= In fortification, is a defense-work constructed on the terre-plein, or level ground of a bastion. It rises to a height varying from 8 to 12 feet above the rampart, and has a parapet about 6 feet high. Its uses are to command any rising ground held by the enemy within cannon-shot, and to guard the curtain, or plain wall between two bastions, from being enfiladed. A cavalier battery--used in siege operations--is a battery of which the terre-plein, or platform of earth on which the gun stands, is above the ordinary level of the ground.

=Cavalot.= An obsolete cannon carrying a ball weighing one pound.

=Cavalry.= That part of a military force which consists of troops that serve on horseback. In European armies cavalry are generally classed as heavy, medium, and light,--cuirassiers and dragoons, lancers, hussars, etc. In the U. S. service all mounted soldiers are simply called cavalry.

=Caveating.= In fencing, implies a motion whereby a person in an instant brings his sword, which was presented to one side of his adversary, to the opposite side.

=Cavesson.= A sort of nose-band of leather or iron, which is put on the nose of a horse, to assist in breaking or training him.

=Cavin.= In military affairs, implies a natural hollow, sufficiently capacious to lodge a body of troops, and facilitate their approach to a place. If it be within musket-shot, it is a place of arms ready made, and serves for opening the trenches, free from the enemy’s shot.

=Cavriana.= A village of Northern Italy. The tower of this place formed one of the principal positions of the centre of the Austrian army, from which it was driven by the Franco-Sardinian forces, under Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel, at the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859.

=Cawnpoor=, or =Cawnpore=. A town of Hindostan, on the right bank of the Ganges. It is an important British military station. It was garrisoned during the mutiny in June, 1857, by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler; these troops broke out into revolt. Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, joined the rebels; he took Cawnpoor, June 26, after a three weeks’ siege, and in spite of a treaty, massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex, in the most cruel manner. Gen. Havelock defeated Nana Sahib July 16, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawnpoor, July 17. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the rebels here on December 6, following.

=Cayenne.= French Guiana, South America; settled by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, January 12, 1809, but was restored to the French in 1814.

=Cedar Creek.= In Northern Virginia. While encamped on this creek on the morning of October 19, 1864, the army of Gen. Sheridan was suddenly attacked before daylight by the Confederate troops under Gen. Early, its left flank turned, and the whole line driven back in confusion about 4 miles, with the loss of 24 pieces of artillery. Gen. Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from Washington, on hearing of this disaster, hastened to the scene of action, reformed his corps, and awaited the attack of the enemy, which was made and handsomely repulsed about 1 P.M. About 3 P.M. Sheridan attacked the enemy and completely routed him, recovering his own artillery and capturing 30 pieces besides, thus converting into a brilliant victory what threatened to be a great disaster. About 2000 prisoners and 300 wagons and ambulances fell into Sheridan’s hands, and many of his own men who had been taken prisoners in the morning were recovered.

=Cedar Mountain.= A sugar-loaf eminence about 2 miles west of Mitchell’s Station, Culpeper Co., Va. On August 9, 1862, a sanguinary conflict took place here between the Confederate forces under Gens. Jackson and Ewell, and part of Gen. Pope’s army under Gen. Banks, night putting an end to the contest. The Federals being largely outnumbered, suffered severely, and fell back about a mile, but without disorder. Their loss was about 1500, 300 of whom were taken prisoners. A considerable quantity of ammunition, stores, etc., also fell into the hands of the Confederates.

=Celeres.= The life-guards which attended Romulus in the infancy of Rome, were so called. They were laid aside by Numa Pompilius. Celeres were properly distinguished from other troops, by being lightly armed and acting always on foot.

=Cells.= Places of solitary confinement in which soldiers are placed, as punishment for serious crimes.

=Celtiberi=, or =Celtiberians=. An ancient and warlike people of Spain, who are renowned in history for their long and obstinate resistance to the Romans. In the second Punic war, after giving important aid to the Carthaginians, they were induced by the generosity of Scipio to accept the alliance of Rome. They revolted against Rome in 181 B.C., but were appeased by Gracchus in 179. War was renewed in 153, and continued with varying success until after the capture of Numantia, 134 B.C. In spite of this great blow the Celtiberi again renewed the war under Sertorius, and it was only after his fall that they began to adopt the Roman language, dress, and manners.

=Cement.= Hydraulic cements are much used in building permanent fortifications. The cement used by the Romans in their great sea-walls, aqueducts, etc., which are still standing as monuments of their civil engineering, was _pozzuolana_, a volcanic earth from near _Baiæ_, Italy. It is still an article of export from Italy. The most noted modern cement is Portland, made artificially in England by burning a mixture of the chalk and clay from the valley of the Medway.

=Cementation.= In metallurgy, is the process of converting metals by absorption under great heat. Specially applied to the conversion of iron into steel by causing it to absorb carbon. The iron bars are imbedded in charcoal and exposed to prolonged heat in a closed furnace. The qualities of the resulting steel vary with the degree and duration of the heating. The bars, when removed, are called _blistered steel_ from their appearance. See ORDNANCE, METALS FOR, BLISTERED STEEL.

=Cenotaph.= The empty tomb of a hero, or monument erected in honor of a person, without the body of the deceased being interred in or near it.

=Centesimation.= In ancient military history, a mild kind of military punishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, and the like, when only every one hundredth man was executed.

=Central America.= Includes the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (which see). They declared their independence September 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican Confederation July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed.

=Centre.= A point equally distant from the extremities of a line, figure, or body; the middle point or place of anything.

=Centre of an Army.= The body of troops occupying the place in the line between the wings. See TARGET.

=Centre of Gravity.= The point of a body about which all its parts are balanced. This is a matter of great importance in cannon, both for mechanical manœuvres and for ordinary handling. In all large guns in the United States, and in many in Europe, the axis of the trunnions passes through the centre of gravity of the gun. Such guns have no preponderance, and need no support in firing except the trunnions. This innovation was introduced by the genius of Rodman, and brought many advantages in the handling of heavy guns. In projectiles, the _centre of gravity_, or _inertia_, is also a thing of moment. Spherical projectiles in which this point does not coincide with the _centre of figure_ are said to be eccentric, and are subject to certain deviations (see PROJECTILES); _deviation_ of the relative position of these points influences the flight also of rifle projectiles.

=Centre of the Bastion.= In fortification, is the intersection made by the two demi-gorges.

=Centrifugal Gun.= A form of machine gun in which balls are thrown from a chambered disk rotating with great speed.

=Centrobaric Method.= The method ordinarily used to determine by calculation the centre of gravity of a projected gun. The principle used is that the volume generated by any surface in revolving about a fixed axis is measured by the product of the surface into the path described by its centre of gravity. The moments of the weights of the several parts are referred to an axis usually taken tangent to the knob of the cascabel. The sum of these moments, divided by the weight of the piece, gives the distance of the centre of gravity from the assumed axis. In homogeneous guns, the volumes of the several parts can be used instead of the weights.

=Centurion.= A military officer among the ancient Romans, who commanded a (_centum_) hundred men.

=Century.= In an ancient military sense, meant a hundred soldiers, who were employed in working the battering-ram.

=Cephalonia.= One of the Ionian Islands; was taken from the Ætolians by the Romans 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian in 135. It was conquered by the Normans in 1146, afterwards passed into the possession of the Venetians, and was taken by the English in 1819.

=Cephisus.= A river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans in 1311.

=Cercelée=, or =Recercelée=. In heraldry, is a cross circling or curling at the ends, like a ram’s horn.

=Cercle= (_Grand-cercle_), Fr. A form observed under the old government of France, by which it was directed that every evening at a specific hour the sergeants and corporals of brigade should assemble to receive orders, the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general or regimental orders were again repeated to the sergeants of each regiment, and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies.

=Ceremonies, Stated Military.= Exercises, such as parades, reviews, inspections, escorts of the color, escorts of honor, funeral honors, guard-mounting, etc.

=Cerignola.= A town of South Italy, in the province of Capitanata. Here, in 1503, the French were defeated by the Spaniards, and the Duke of Nemours, who commanded the former, was slain.

=Cerro Gordo.= A celebrated mountain-pass in Mexico, about 60 miles northwest of Vera Cruz. Here an army of about 12,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna was totally defeated by about 8000 U. S. troops under Gen. Scott, April 18, 1847. The Mexicans lost about 1000 killed and wounded, besides 3000 prisoners; the American loss was 431 killed and wounded.

=Certificate of Disability.= See DISABILITY.

=Certificate of Merit.= See MERIT, CERTIFICATE OF.

=Cessation of Arms.= An armistice or truce, agreed to by the commanders of armies, to give them time for a capitulation, or for other purposes.

=Ceuta.= A fortified seaport of Morocco, opposite Gibraltar. The castle stands on the highest point of the ancient _Abyla_, one of the pillars of Hercules, terminating a peninsula. This was a Mauritanian town under the Romans, and in 1415 was taken from the Moors by the Portuguese. In 1580 it passed into the possession of the Spanish, in whose hands it afterwards remained.

=Ceylon= (anc. _Taprobane_). An island in the Indian Ocean. It was invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505, but it was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602; they captured the capital, Colombo, in 1503. Intercourse with the British began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British, 1795. Ceylon was ceded to the British by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815.

=Chæronea= (_Bœotia_). Here Greece was ruined by Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, etc., August 6 or 7, 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C.

=Chain.= A chain made of a kind of wire, divided into links of an equal length, is made use of by military engineers for setting out works on the ground, because cord lines are apt to shrink and give way.

=Chain-ball.= See PROJECTILE.

=Chain-mail.= A kind of armor made of interlaced rings, both flexible and strong; much used in the 12th and 13th centuries.

=Chain-shot.= See PROJECTILE.

=Chair.= See ORDNANCE, CARRIAGES FOR, NOMENCLATURE OF ARTILLERY CARRIAGE.

=Chalcedon.= In Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonized by Magarians about 684 B.C. It was taken by Darius, 505 B.C.; by the Romans, 74; plundered by the Goths, 259 A.D.; taken by Chosroes the Persian, 609; by Orchan the Turk in 1338.

=Chalcis.= An ancient Greek city, of great antiquity, the capital of the island of Eubœa. It rose to great eminence, but finally became a tributary of Athens, from whose sway it revolted several times, being as often, however, subdued, and held until the downfall of the Athenian empire at the close of the Peloponnesian war. In later times it was successively occupied by the Macedonians, Antiochus, Mithridates, and the Romans. It joined the Achæans in the last war against the Romans, and the town was in consequence destroyed by Mummius. The modern city of Egripo, or Negropont, built on its site, for a time in possession of the Venetians, was taken by the Turks in 1470.

=Chalgrove.= In Oxfordshire, England. At a skirmish here with Prince Rupert, June 18, 1643, John Hampden, of the Parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to his memory, June 18, 1843.

=Challenge.= The act of a sentinel in questioning or demanding the countersign from those who appear at his post.

=Challenge.= See APPENDIX, ARTICLES OF WAR, 26, 27, and 28.

=Challenge of Members of Courts-martial.= When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one member at a time shall be received by the court.

=Châlons-sur-Marne.= A town of France, in the department of Marne. Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to the throne termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia.

=Chamade.= A signal made for parley by beat of drum.

=Chamber.= Of a mine, that place where the powder is deposited.

=Chamber.= In howitzers, and mortars of the old model, was the smallest part of the bore, and contained the charge of powder. In the howitzers the chamber was cylindrical, and was united with the large cylinder of the bore by a conical surface; the angles of intersection of the conical surface with the cylinders of the bore and chamber were rounded (in profile) by arcs of circles. In the 8-inch howitzer, the chamber was united with the cylinder of the bore by spherical surface, in order that the shell might, when necessary, be inserted without a sabot. The chamber is omitted in _all_ cannon of the late models, the cylinder of the bore terminating at the bottom in a semi-ellipsoid. The old chambers were subcaliber. The first use of a chamber _larger_ than the bore occurred, it is believed, in a gun invented by an American named Ferris. The gun had a great range. One of the most important improvements in recent ordnance consists in the use of this chamber. The English, who deserve the credit of first appreciating it, now use it in all their largest guns. See ORDNANCE, HISTORY OF.

=Chambersburg.= The capital of Franklin Co., Pa. This place was the scene of several exciting incidents during the civil war. It was occupied by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. Stuart in 1862, by a part of Gen. Ewell’s forces in June, 1863, and next month almost totally destroyed by fire by a party of Confederate cavalry under Gen. McCausland.

=Chamfron=, or =Chamfrain=. The frontlet of a barbed or armed horse, usually having a spike between the eyes.

=Champ de Mars.= An open square in front of the Military School, Paris, which was used for the great meetings of the French people, reviews, etc.

=Champigny.= A town of France, department of the Seine, 8 miles east-southeast of Paris. On November 30, 1870, a force of 120,000 French under Gens. Trochu and Ducrot, who made a sortie from Paris, were met near here by the Germans, and some severe fighting ensued, with great loss on both sides, the French holding the taken possessions until the contest was renewed, December 2, when the French were compelled to retreat.

=Champion Hills.= In Hinds Co., Miss., west of Jackson. Here the Confederate forces under Gen. Pemberton were defeated by the Union troops under Gen. Grant, May 16, 1863.

=Champlain, Lake.= An extensive body of water forming part of the boundary between the States of Vermont and New York, and extending northward a few miles beyond the Canada line. It was the scene of engagements between the Americans and British during the war of independence. On its waters also, in 1814, Commodore Macdonough gained a victory over the British fleet.

=Chancellorsville.= A small village of Spottsylvania Co., Va., near the Rappahannock River, about 65 miles north by west from Richmond. This place was the scene of several sanguinary conflicts between the Federal army of the Potomac under Gen. Hooker and the Confederates under Gen. Lee. On April 28, 1863, the Federal army crossed the Rappahannock; on May 2, Gen. “Stonewall” Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both parties, the Federals were compelled to recross the Rappahannock. The struggle was compared to that at Hougoumont during the battle of Waterloo.

=Chandelier.= In military engineering, a wooden frame, which was filled with fascines, to form a traverse in sapping.

=Chanderee=, or =Chandhaire=. A town of India in the province of Malwa. Its fortress, formerly deemed impregnable, consists of a strong rampart of sandstone flanked by circular towers, and is situated on a high hill. During the native wars, being a place of importance, it was frequently besieged.

=Chandernagore.= The principal settlement of the French in Bengal, which is encompassed by the British district of Hooghly. In 1757 this settlement was taken by the British, but restored in 1763. In 1793 it was again taken by the British, but restored to the French a second time in 1816.

=Chandore.= A fortified town of British India, 130 miles northwest from Bombay. In 1804 and 1818 this place capitulated to the British.

=Chantier= (_Fr._). A square piece of wood, which is used for the purpose of raising anything. It serves to place barrels of gunpowder in a proper manner, and frequently to try pieces of ordnance instead of frames.

=Chantilly.= A post-village of Fairfax Co., Va. Here, on September 1, 1862, the Confederate troops of Gen. Lee attacked a part of Gen. Pope’s army, under Gens. Reno, Stevens, and Kearney, and a severe conflict ensued, lasting into the night, and resulting in the death of Gens. Stevens and Kearney.

=Chape.= The metallic part put on the end of a scabbard, to prevent the point of the sword or bayonet from piercing through it.

=Chapeau.= In a military sense, a hat, cap, or other head-covering.

=Chapeau Bras.= A military hat which can be flattened and put under the arm.

=Chaperon.= A hood or cape worn by Knights of the Garter.

=Chaplain.= A clergyman with a military commission, giving him the spiritual charge of soldiers. There are 30 post and 4 regimental chaplains in the U. S. army.

=Chaplain-General.= In the British service, the officer at the head of the chaplain’s department.

=Chaplet.= In heraldry, is always composed of four roses, the other parts being leaves.

=Chappe= (_Fr._). A barrel containing another barrel, which holds gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse-dung, and wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon or mortar.