Part 90

_General observations on the march of troops._ Observations from a French work, applicable to general service. When troops are ordered to march, four principal objects should be well considered, viz. locality, time, possible ambuscades, and the ultimate end for which the march is undertaken. In order to secure these important points, some topographers (without whom no army can be said to be well constituted, or its staff ably appointed) should be directed to give in plans of the country, to shew where it is intersected, where hills with their different incurvations appear, where the roads are narrow, where the ground is soft or marshy, and unfavorable to the passage of artillery, where intricate passes occur, where there are woods, hedges, rivers, or marshes, and finally where the country becomes totally impervious.

When these different objects have been well ascertained, and thoroughly digested at head quarters, the component parts of the army must be so distributed with respect to the battalions of infantry, squadrons of horse, artillery, and baggage, that the front of the leading column shall invariably correspond with the extent of the road or defile which is to be marched over.

When troops are ordered to march through an inclosed country, the whole army is divided into a given number of columns, which successively follow each other, and are encamped, cantoned, or quartered separately. Sometimes the country is cleared, as much as circumstances will admit, in order that the several columns may advance, while the artillery, under an escort of infantry on each side, and with cavalry distributed upon both wings of the army, makes the best of its way through the main road. Small detachments, consisting of active, spirited young men, headed by intelligent and enterprising officers, are sent forward to take possession of the different defiles, woods, passes, and to post themselves close to an enemy’s post, for the purpose of blocking it up until the whole of the army has marched by.

The leading columns should always be composed of tried and steady soldiers; and the front of each should invariably consist of the best men in the army.

The advanced and rear guards must be well supported by infantry, with the addition of some light field pieces. The order of battle is so arranged, that the heavy ordnance, the baggage, and the greatest part of the cavalry, which can be of little use on the wings, may be distributed in the centre.

When it is necessary to cross a river, the artillery must be planted directly opposite to the post which the army intends to occupy. Considerable advantage will accrue should the river wind in such a manner as to form a rentrant angle in that particular spot, which advantage would be greatly increased by having a ford near.

In proportion as the construction of the bridge advances, some steady troops must be marched forward, and a regular discharge of musquetry must be kept up against the enemy on the opposite bank.

The instant the bridge is finished, a corps of infantry, with some cavalry, some pieces of artillery, and a certain number of pioneers, to fortify the head of the bridge, must be ordered over. Should there be the least ground to suspect an attack upon the rear guard, the inside tête de pont must also be fortified.

Proper precautions will have been taken to prevent any surprise during the construction of the bridge, and while the troops are crossing. Each side of the river above and below the bridge, will on this account have been well reconnoitred, to ascertain that there are not any armed barges or floating rafters with infernals upon them, kept ready to blow up the bridge, when a considerable part of the army shall have passed the river. If the preservation of the bridge be considered as an object, both ends must be fortified, and adequate guards stationed to defend them.

Each corps that marches separately, such as the advanced and rear guards, and the main body, must be provided with shovels, pick-axes, and a sufficient number of pioneers and guides, to clear the roads, and to direct it on its march.

The following general rules in route marching have been laid down by the celebrated Montecuculli:--

No officer or soldier is on any account to quit his post or rank. The battalion companies must never intermix with the squadrons or troops of cavalry. Squadrons or troops of cavalry must always take care not to leave such wide intervals between them, as will expose them to be suddenly cut off, or such contracted ones as might enable the enemy to throw them into confusion.

In summer, troops should quit their ground or quarters at day-break.

In winter, great care should be taken by the commissariat, to see that the troops are well supplied with fuel whenever they halt. During very inclement weather the march of troops should be greatly contracted.

Some steady old soldiers must be stationed at the different cross roads, to prevent the rear men from mistaking the line of march.

The leading columns of those troops that precede them, must instantly fall upon any body of the enemy that may attempt to oppose their progress.

Three things are always to be considered and well weighed, viz. whether there be much ground to apprehend a serious attack from the enemy; whether there be little ground to fear him; or whether there be no ground at all.

In the latter case each corps of cavalry and infantry, marches separately, and with its own baggage.

All convoys, containing stores and ammunition, move with the artillery accompanied by an officer from the adjutant or quarter-master general’s department, who has the direction of the march, as far as regards the convoy itself; but cannot interfere with the artillery; the commanding officer of the latter being presumed to know best, when and where his park should halt, &c. A very sensible observation on this head may be found in a recent French publication, intituled, _Manuel des Adjudans Généraux_, by Paul Thiébault. The whole of which is published under the article STAFF in the _Am. Mil. Lib._ On the evening preceding a march, each corps is specifically furnished with the necessary orders in writing.

At the hour which is named in general orders for the troops to commence their march, the quarter-master general, and the captain of guides, repair to the advanced guard.

If the army has been encamped, the lines of entrenchment are levelled or cleared in such a manner, that the troops may move with an extended front. As soon as the troops have marched off, the different guards belonging to the camp will be withdrawn.

Pioneers must be sent forward to clear the roads, preceded by small detachments of light and select troops, together with estaffettes or mounted messengers and vedettes, who are to reconnoitre in front, rear, and round the wings of the army. To these must be added appropriate guards and escorts to accompany the artillery, and to protect the baggage. It will belong to this latter description of troops, to take possession of advantageous heights, to discover ambuscades, and to send a faithful detail of all they observe to head quarters. These communications will be made by the chief of the etat major who accompanies them.

The advanced guard of the army will be composed of one half of the cavalry, the main body will consist of the infantry, attended by pioneers and detached corps of light artillery, which will be preceded by an iron instrument made in the shape of a plough-share, for the purpose of tracing out the paths, which must be kept by the waggon-train. In the rear of the main body must follow the heavy ordnance, the baggage-waggons belonging to the several regiments, and the train of artillery. The other half of the cavalry will be disposed of in the rear-guard, in which the army stores and ammunition are to be escorted by a regiment of horse.

If the army should be divided, and march in different columns by indirect roads, a rendezvous or place d’armes must be marked out in writing, where the whole may conveniently meet on the line of march. The utmost attention must be paid to the selection of this spot, by the adjutant and quarter-master general, lest it should be exposed to a surprise from the enemy; on which account it is kept as secret as possible, lest any intelligence should be given to him by deserters or spies. The hour and the manner in which the several columns are to arrive, is specifically stated to the different leaders; and scouts, &c. are sent round the country to discover the enemy’s movements.

If there should be any reason to apprehend an attack, the various precautions must be increased in proportion to the alarm.

An army must always march, if it possibly can, in that order from which it may easily and expeditiously deploy into line; that is, it should invariably preserve the order of battle; every column bearing a natural front towards the enemy. Montecuculli further adds, that an army must invariably march the right or left in front, and not from its centre.

Field-pieces, with a sufficient quantity of ammunition, shovels, spades, and pick-axes always at hand, must be disposed along the most vulnerable part of the rendezvous; these must be guarded by a body of cavalry and infantry, who are to be selected for that specific duty.

Care is likewise taken to lodge the baggage-waggons, &c. in the most secure and best defended spot.

The two first lines of the army will consist of the mounted artillery in front, next to which will stand the different squadrons of horse that are posted in intervals between the infantry battalions: after these will follow the train of caissons, &c. in as many files as the road will admit; then the stores and baggage, and finally the reserve.

Whenever the leading columns have passed an obstacle, the front man must be halted till the rear have completely cleared it likewise; and when the whole enters an open country, the line must be formed, and the march be continued in order of battle until a fresh obstacle occurs, when the troops must be prepared to pass the defile, the advanced guard leading, the main body following next, and the reserve bringing up the rear.

When an army is thus advancing, the right or left flank (according to circumstances) of its line of march, must be covered by rivers, and banks, rising grounds, or eminences; and if these natural advantages do not present themselves, artificial ones must be resorted to. These may consist of waggons, chevaux de friezes or other temporary means of defence; the quantity, &c. must depend upon the nature of the country, and the number of troops that compose the columns.

It is, however, impossible to set down general rules for all cases; these must vary with the manifold circumstances that occur, and the different designs which are to be accomplished or pursued.

When the movements of an army are to be concealed, the march must be undertaken at night through woods, vallies, and concealed ways; all frequented and inhabited places must be carefully avoided; no loud instruments must on any account be played; and if fires are made, they must only be lighted on the eve of breaking up camp; in which case they must be left burning, for the purpose of deluding the enemy into a supposition, that the troops have not moved.

Small parties of cavalry are sent forward to seize all stragglers or scouts from the enemy, or to take possession of the different passes. In order to avoid being discovered in the object of the march, a different road must be taken from the one which you really propose to march through; and a fit opportunity must afterwards be embraced to get into the real track. Before you march out of a town or fortified place, the utmost care must be observed to prevent your intended route from being conveyed to the enemy. On this account the troops must be first marched out, and the gates immediately shut upon the rear, so that no stranger, &c. may be able to slip out with the men.

During a march of this nature, the troops must be provided with subsistence, stores, and ammunition, to last out until the object is attained. No scout or vedette is sent forward, when an army, or any part of it, advances to take possession of a post or place, to succour a town, to surprize an enemy, in a close or woody country, by favor of the night, or in hazy weather, or on any occasion when orders have been given to oppose and fight every thing it meets.

When an army marches for the direct purpose of forcing a passage, which is guarded by an enemy, a feint must be made in one quarter, whilst the real object is vigorously pursued in another. Sometimes you must appear suddenly disposed to make a retrograde movement, and then again as suddenly resume your progress; sometimes march beyond the spot you wish to occupy, insensibly drawing off the enemy’s attention; and whilst the whole army is thus pushing forward and is closely watched by its opponents, (who hang upon the flanks, and hug its line of march) let detached parties of cavalry and foot, that have lain in ambush, suddenly surprise the passage, and post themselves upon it.

When it is found expedient to advance rapidly into a country for the purpose of surprising an enemy, getting possession of a town or place, or avoiding superior forces, every species of baggage must be left behind (even the common necessaries of the men: if circumstances require,) the cavalry must be sent forward, and the infantry put in carts, carriages, and chaises, or mounted behind the dragoons. If there be spare horses enough in the different troops, or any can be procured from the inhabitants of the country, they must be led in order to relieve those that are double mounted, in the manner which is practised by the Tartars. Marches of this description and urgency, must be kept up night and day; and it is on such occasions that the value of a good staff or etat-major will have all its weight.

It must be observed, as a general maxim, that whenever troops are retiring from a weak position, or to avoid the approach of a superior force, the retreat must be so managed, as not to bear the least resemblance of a flight.

_Order of_ MARCH, _which is observed in the Turkish army_: this order of march may be considered as the movement of an army that combines its several operations according to some established system of military art. The Turks usually divide this movement into time distinct operations: the first comprehends that by which troops of several denominations, and from different quarters, assemble together at some given spot or rendezvous. Such, for instance, is the march of various corps of militia, both in Asia and Europe, belonging to the Ottoman empire, who must necessarily pass through several quarters, and cross the sea, to form a junction. From the many inconveniences which troops must unavoidably experience on these occasions, and from the irregularity that always grows out of them, this _march_ cannot be strictly called a systematic movement of the army.

The second order of march among the Turks is that which they call _alay_; when the troops arrive, under the command of their several bachas, at the camp or given spot of rendezvous, for the purpose of being reviewed by the serasquier, the grand vizier or the sultan. This order is observed likewise by the janizaries when they repair to a similar place.

The third order of march must be considered as a real military movement. It is that which is performed by the army that first takes up its ground in a regular manner, and encamps. This is the commencement or beginning of military marches, because from a situation or arrangement of this sort, troops either leave one camp to pitch their tents elsewhere, or return again to their old one after having made an attempt against an enemy’s post, &c.

It is an established law in Turkey, whenever the sultan or grand vizier takes the field, to have their magnificent tents, with seven or five horse-tails displayed above them, regularly pitched on the plains of Constantinople, or in those of Adrianople, accordingly as the court happens to be in either of those imperial residences; which circumstance is announced throughout the empire, that every province, &c. may be made acquainted with the march of the sultan or grand vizier.

As soon as these pavilions or tents have been thus pitched, all the different armed corps that have not yet commenced their march receive their route: and those that are already on the march, advance with all the expedition they can, to the spot of general rendezvous. The troops from Egypt and Asia are particularly alert on these occasions, most especially if the war should be carried into Hungary. All the points from whence embarkations are to take place, appear conspicuously marked along the coast of the Marmora, Propontides, and the Archipelago, in order that the different bodies of troops may take the direct road to Constantinople, Andrianople, Philipolis Sophia, Nissa, and Belgrade, in which places was the general rendezvous of all the troops, when the Ottoman empire flourished. Those, however, were not included which were destined to act in Hungary and Bosnia. They met together, after having passed the bridge of Osek, and formed a junction with the main army. Kara-Mustapha followed these dispositions when he went to besiege Vienna.

The second march of the Turkish or Ottoman army, is a business of mere parade or ceremony. This movement is observed by all the different corps, and it is executed with great magnificence by the Bachas, particularly so when they repair the first time to the camp of general rendezvous.

With respect to the third march, it is a real and essential movement, and ought to be called the _military march_ or _route_. Four principal branches or objects of service, constitute the nature of this march, and form its disposition. These are the cavalry, infantry, artillery, and baggage; in which latter are included the stores, &c. belonging to the Turkish militia, the royal provisions, public stores, and ammunition, comprehending gunpowder, shot, matches, spades, pick-axes, &c.

There is, however, no invariable rule attached to this arrangement, it alters according to circumstance and place.

The real or military march of the troops is entirely managed by the grand vizier, or the seraskier. Written instructions are issued out for this purpose; for the Turks never give out verbal orders, except in matters of little or no importance, or in cases of extreme emergency, when they cannot commit them to writing.

It is an invariable maxim among the Turks, whenever their troops are upon the march, to throw new bridges over rivers, or to repair old ones, to clear public or bye roads, to fill up ditches, and to cut down trees, &c. so as to facilitate their movements, and to obviate delay. They moreover throw up small heaps of earth, which they call _unka_, at the distance of half a league from each other, and often nearer, especially on high grounds. When the sultan marches at their head they make two heaps of this description.

The Turks pay very particular attention to their movements or _marches_ on service: the whole of the army is under arms during the night, in order to make the necessary dispositions; on which occasions the soldiers make use of small vessels with fire lighted in them, and tie them to the ends of long pikes or poles. The greatest silence is observed during the march; neither drums, trumpets, nor cymbals are heard. Sometimes, indeed, but this rarely happens, the drummers belonging to the band of the grand vizier, accompany the salutes or ceremonial compliments which are paid by the salam-agasi, or master of ceremonies.

When they march through a country in which there is no cause to apprehend surprise or hostility, the infantry generally takes the lead, two or three days march, in front of the main army. The troops march in the loosest manner, being neither confined to particular companies, nor formed in columns. They chuse what roads they like best, halt where they please, and reach the camp in detached parties; with this injunction, however, that the whole must arrive at the spot of rendezvous before evening prayers.

Next to these follow the cavalry, headed by a general officer. Their march, notwithstanding his presence, is as irregular as that of the infantry. The men frequently halt out of mere laziness, and under pretence of refreshing their horses; and little or no attention is paid to system and good order. The baggage and ammunition waggons, together with such stores, &c. as are carried by beasts of burthen, move in the same manner.

When the army enters an enemy’s country, the whole of the infantry is collected together, and marches in one body. The capiculy and the seratculy, for instance, form one column. There is this distinction, however, observed, that every janizary marches under his own colors, and every officer remains attached to his oda or company, for the purpose of executing, in the speediest manner, the commander in chief’s directions.

The cavalry is often divided into two wings; it is likewise frequently formed in one body. Every man is ranged under his own standard. The squadrons are commanded by the alay-begs, who receive orders through the chiaous; and the other officers are near the bacha.

The baggage sometimes moves in the front, and sometimes in the rear of the janizaries. A particular body of cavalry, called topracly, are an exception to this arrangement: the men belonging to this corps are obliged to furnish themselves with all the necessaries of life, and consequently carry provisions, &c. with them in all their marches; which circumstance unavoidably creates much confusion.

The artillery is generally attached to the infantry; sometimes, however, it moves with the cavalry.

When the Turkish army marches through an enemy’s country, it is covered by an advanced and a rear guard. The advanced guard is composed of five or six thousand of the best mounted cavalry. This body is under the immediate orders of a commanding officer, called _kialkagy-bacy_, whose appointment lasts during the whole of the campaign. The advanced guard usually moves six, seven, or eight leagues in front of the main body; but it falls back in proportion as the enemy retires. When there are bodies of Tartars or auxiliary troops from any of the rebellious provinces with the army, they are detached in front of the advanced guard, for the purpose of harassing the enemy’s rear, pillaging the country, and committing those excesses which are not countenanced by regular troops.

The rear-guard generally consists of one thousand horse. It is the business of this body to escort the baggage safe into camp, and not leave it until the whole be securely lodged.

The Turks, in all their movements on real service, display uncommon activity; and their marches are generally so well managed, that an enemy runs the greatest hazard of being surprised.

_Rogue’s_ MARCH. A tune which is played by trumpeters or fifers of a regiment (as the case may be) for the purpose of drumming out any person who has behaved disorderly, &c. in a camp or garrison. Thieves, strumpets, &c. are frequently disgraced in this manner; being marched down the front of a battalion, from right to left, and along the rear: after which they are conducted to the gate of the garrison or entrance of the camp, where they receive a kick on the posteriors from the youngest drummer, and are warned never to appear within the limits of either place, under pain of being severely punished.