Part 53

_Mille_ GENS, _cent mille gens_, _Fr._ signifies any considerable number of men.

GENS, _Fr._ this word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other, viz.

_Nos_ GENS _ont battu les ennemis_, _Fr._ our men, or people have overcome the enemy.

_Nos_ GENS _ont été battus_, _Fr._ our men or people have been beaten.

_Je craignois que ce ne fussent des ennemis, et c’étoient de nos_ GENS, _Fr._ I was apprehensive that they were our enemies, but they proved to be our own people.

_Nos_ GENS _battirent les vôtres_, _Fr._, our men beat your’s.

GENS, _Fr._ when followed by the preposition _de_, and by a substantive, which points out any particular profession, trade, &c. signifies all those persons that belong to one nation, one town, &c. or who are of one specific profession or calling, as

LES GENS _d’église_, _Fr._ churchmen.

LES GENS _de robe_, _Fr._ lawyers or gentlemen of the long robe.

_Les_ GENS _de finance_, _Fr._ men concerned in the distribution of public money.

_Les_ GENS _de loi_, _Fr._ means generally all persons who have any connection with the law in the way of profession.

_Les_ GENS _du roi_, _Fr._ Crown lawyers.

GENTILHOMMES _de la garde_, commonly called _Au bec de corbin_, or the battle axe. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government, it consisted of 200 guards under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had moreover the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. These were chiefly at the coronation, and the marriage of the king, or at the reception of the knights of the Holy Ghost.

When the company was first raised, its particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly near him on the day of battle.

GENTILHOMME _à drapeau établie dans chaque compagnie des gardes Francoises_, _Fr._ under the old French government, this person ranked as _officier en second_. He did duty in common with the ensigns of the French guards, and took precedence immediately under them. His name always stood upon the muster roll, but his appointment was purely honorary, as he did not receive any pay; his tour of duty in mounting guards, went with that of the ensigns, he was obliged to be present at all field days, and could not absent himself without leave.

GENTILSHOMMES _pensionnaires_, _Fr._ Gentlemen pensioners. See PENSIONERS.

GEODOESIA, GEODESIE, _Fr._ that part of practical geometry, which contains the doctrine or art of measuring surfaces and finding the contents of all plain figures. Among the French _géodesie_ means likewise the division of lands. See SURVEYING.

GEOGRAPHY is the doctrine or knowledge of the terrestrial globe; or the science that teaches and explains the state of the earth, and parts thereof that depend upon quantity; or it is rather that part of mixed mathematics, which explains the state of the earth, and of its parts depending on quantity, viz. its figure, magnitude, place, and motion, with the celestial appearances, &c. In consequence of this definition, geography should be divided into general and special, or universal and particular.

_By universal_ GEOGRAPHY, is understood that part of the science which considers the whole earth in general, and explains its properties without regard to particular countries. This division is again distinguished into three parts, absolute, relative, and comparative. The absolute part respects the body of the earth itself, its parts and peculiar properties; as its figure, magnitude, and motion; its lands, seas, and rivers, &c. The relative part accounts for the appearances and accidents that happen to it from celestial causes; and lastly, the comparative contains an explanation of those properties which arise from comparing different parts of the earth together.

_Special_ or _particular_ GEOGRAPHY is that division of the science which describes the constitution and situation of each single country by itself; and is twofold, viz. chorographical, which describes countries of a considerable extent; or topographical, which gives a view of some place, or small tract of land. Hence the object or subject of geography is the earth, especially its superficies and exterior parts.

_The properties of_ GEOGRAPHY are of three kinds, viz. celestial, terrestrial, and human. The celestial properties are such as affect us by reason of the apparent motion of the sun and stars. These are 8 in number.

1. The elevation of the pole, or the distance of a place from the equator.

2. The obliquity of the diurnal motion of the stars above the horizon of the place.

3. The time of the longest and shortest day.

4. The climate and zone.

5. Heat, cold, and the seasons of the year; with rain, snow, wind, and other meteors.

6. The rising, appearance, and continuance of stars above the horizon.

7. The stars that pass through the zenith of a place.

8. The celerity of the motion with which, according to the Copernican hypothesis, every place constantly revolves.

The terrestrial properties are those observed in the face of the country, and are 10 in number.

1. The limits and bounds of each country. 2.} {figure; 3.} {magnitude; 4.}Its{mountains; 5.} {waters, viz. springs, rivers, lakes, and bays; 6.} {woods and deserts. 7. The fruitfulness and barrenness of the country, with its various kinds of fruits. 8.} {minerals and fossils; 9.}The{living creatures there; 10.} {longitude and latitude of the place.

The third kind of observations to be made in every country is called human, because it chiefly regards the inhabitants of the place. It consists of 10 specific branches.

1. The stature, shape, color, and the length of their lives; their origin, meat and drink. 2. Their arts, and the profits which arise from them, with the merchandize they barter one with another. 3. Their virtues and vices, learning, capacities, and schools. 4. Their ceremonies at births, marriages, and funerals. 5. The language which the inhabitants use. 6.} {political government. 7.}Their{religion and church government. 8.} {cities and famous places. 9.} {remarkable histories and antiquities. 10. Their famous men, artificers, and inventions of the natives.

These are the three kinds of occurrences to be explained in special geography.

_The principles of_ GEOGRAPHY, or those from which arguments are drawn for the proving of propositions in that science, are, according to the best authors, of three sorts.

1. Geometrical, arithmetical, and trigonometrical propositions.

2. Astronomical precepts and theorems.

3. Experience, being that upon which the greatest part of geography, and chiefly the special is founded.

In proving geographical propositions, we are to observe, that several properties, and chiefly the celestial, are confirmed by proper demonstrations; being either grounded on experience and observation, or on the testimony of our senses: nor can they be proved by any other means. There are also several propositions proved, or rather exposed to view, by the terrestrial globe, or by geographical maps.

Other propositions cannot be so well proved, yet are received as apparent truths. Thus, though we suppose all places on the globe, and in maps, to be laid down in the same order as they are really on the earth; nevertheless, in these matters, we rather follow the descriptions that are given by geographical writers.

GEOGRAPHY is very ancient, at least the special part thereof; for the ancients scarce went beyond the description of countries. It was a constant custom among the Romans, after they had conquered or subdued any province, to have a map or printed representation thereof, carried in triumph and exposed to the view of the spectators. Historians relate that the Roman senate, about 100 years before Christ, sent geographers into divers parts to make an exact survey and mensuration of the whole globe; but they scarcely ever saw the 20th part of it.

Before them, Necho, king of Egypt, ordered the Phœnicians to make a survey of the whole coast of Africa, which they accomplished in 3 years. Darius procured the Ethiopic sea, and the mouth of the Indus, to be surveyed; and Pliny relates, that Alexander, in his expedition into Asia, took two geographers to measure and describe the roads; and that from their itineraries, the writers of the following ages took many particulars. Indeed this may be observed, that whereas most other arts and sciences are sufferers by war, geography, artillery, mining, and fortification, alone have been improved thereby. Geography, however, must have been exceedingly defective, as a great part of the globe was then unknown, particularly all America, the northern parts of Europe and Asia, with the Australasia, and Magellanica; and they were also ignorant of the earth’s being capable to be sailed round, and of the torrid zone being habitable, &c.

The honor of reducing geography to art and system, was reserved for Ptolemy; who, by adding mathematical advantages to the historical method in which it had been treated of before, has described the world in a much more intelligible manner: he has delineated it under more certain rules, and by fixing the bounds of places from longitude and latitude, has discovered other mistakes, and has left us a method of discovering his own.

GEOLIER _des prisons militaires_, _Fr._ the superintendant or head jailor of military prisons. Under the old French government, this person had a right to visit all prisoners that were not confined in dungeons. He could order provisions, wood, and coal to be conveyed to them; but he had not the power of permitting women to visit or have any intercourse with the soldiers; and when their period of imprisonment expired, he could not detain them on account of debts contracted for food, lodging, or fees, &c. Half of the prisoner’s subsistence for one day, according to his rank, was given on his release.

GEOMETRICAL _elevations_, just dimensions of ascent proportionate to a given scale, &c. See ORTHOGRAPHY.

GEOMETRIE, _Fr._ Geometry.

GEOMETRIE _composée_, _Fr._ compound geometry, which consists in the knowlege of curved lines, and of the different bodies produced by them. The immediate object or intent of compound geometry is confined to conic sections, and to lines of that species.

GEOMETRIE _sublime et transcendante_, _Fr._ these terms have been applied by the French to the new system of geometry, which was produced by Leibnitz, and Newton, when they found out the method of calculating _ad infinitum_.

GEOMETRY, originally signified no more than the art of measuring the earth, or any distance or dimensions in it; but at present it denotes the science of magnitude in general; comprehending the doctrine and relations of whatever is susceptible of augmentation or diminution, considered in that light. Hence, to geometry may be referred the consideration not only of lines, surfaces, and solids; but also of time, velocity, number, weight, &c.

Plato thought the word geometry an improper name for this science, and accordingly substituted in its place the more extensive one of mensuration; and after him, others gave it the name of pantometry, as demonstrating not only the quantities of all manner of magnitudes, but also their qualities, ratios, positions, transformations, relations, &c. and Proclus calls it the knowlege of magnitudes and figures, and their limitations; also of their motions and affections of every kind.

_Origin and progress of_ GEOMETRY. This science had its rise in Asia, the invention, which at first consisted only in measuring the lands, that every person might have what belonged to him, was called geometry, or the art of measuring land; and it is probable, that the draughts and schemes which they were annually compelled to make, helped them to discover many excellent properties of these figures; which speculation has continued gradually to improve to this day.

From Asia it passed into Egypt, and thence into Greece, where it continued to receive improvement from Thales, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, &c. The elements of geometry, written by Euclid in 15 books, are a most convincing proof to what perfection this science was carried among the ancients. However, it must be acknowleged, that it fell short of modern geometry, the bounds of which, by the inventions of fluxions, and the discovery of the almost infinite order of curves are greatly enlarged.

_Division of_ GEOMETRY. This science is usually distinguished into elementary, and higher or sublime geometry. The first, or elementary geometry, treats of the properties of right lines, and of the circle, together with the figures and solids formed by them. The doctrine of lines comes first, then that of surfaces, and lastly that of solids. The higher geometry comprehends the doctrine of conic sections, and numerous other curves.

_Speculative and practical_ GEOMETRY. The former treats of the properties of lines and figures, as Euclid’s Elements, Apollonius’s Conic Sections, &c. and the latter shews how to apply these speculations to the use of mensuration, navigation, surveying, taking heights and distances, gauging, fortification, gunnery, &c.

_Usefulness of_ GEOMETRY. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. By the help of it, astronomers turn their observations to advantage: regulate the duration of times, seasons, years, cycles, and epochs; and measure the distance, motion, and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies. By it geographers determine the figure and magnitude of the whole earth; and delineate the extent and bearings of kingdoms, provinces, harbors, &c. It is from this science also that architects derive their just measure and construction of public edifices, as well as of private houses.

It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, take the situation and plans of towns, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry likewise depends the theory of gunnery, mining, music, optics, perspective, drawing, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, &c.

We may distinguish the progress of geometry into three ages; the first of which was in its meridian glory at the time when Euclid’s Elements appeared; the second beginning with Archimedes, reaches to the time of Descartes; who by applying algebra to the elements of geometry, gave a new turn to this science, which has been carried to its utmost perfection by our learned countryman Sir Isaac Newton, and by the German philosopher Leibnitz.

GEORGE, _or knight of St. George_, has been the denomination of several military orders. See GARTER.

GERBE, _Fr._ means literally a sheaf, but it here signifies a sort of artificial firework, which is placed in a perpendicular manner, and resembles a sheaf. See JETS _de feu_.

GERBE likewise means the tithe which was formerly paid to the French curates.

_Faire_ GERBE _de foarre à dieu_, _Fr._ a figurative expression, signifying, that the farmer made up the worst sheaf he could for the parson; filling it principally with straw instead of good ears of corn.

GERMS, small coasting vessels employed by the French, to keep up an intercourse with Egypt.

GESE, _Fr._ a weapon used in former times.

GESES and _Materes_ were adopted by the Allobroges (a body of ancient Gauls so called) independently of the broad cut and thrust sword, which the Swiss still wear. These instruments were only one cubit long; half the blade was nearly square, but it terminated in a round point that was exceedingly sharp. Virgil in his Æneid calls this species of blade, _alpin_, meaning, no doubt, to convey, that it was in general use among the neighboring inhabitants of the _Alps_. Not only the Romans, but the Greeks received it into their armies. The former retained the full appellation and called it _gése_, but the latter corrupted it into _ysse_. This is the only weapon with which those soldiers were armed that escorted malefactors, who were condemned to death, to the place of execution. The term _gese_ was also applied to a sort of a javelin.

GESSATES, a people of whom Polybius speaks in his history of the ancient Gauls, and who inhabited the countries lying adjacent to the alps, and to the river Rhone. According to some writers, they were so called because they constantly wore _geses_. The gese is said to have been a dart which the ancient Gauls exclusively used, and which some authors since confounded with the _pertuisane_ or _partisan_, a sort of halbert, called by others a _javelin_. This word was used in Provence, as late as the year 1300; for in the inventory which was taken of the goods, furniture, &c. appertaining to the Templars, we find _gessus_ or _gesus_ particularly specified in the list of weapons and iron instruments, which was understood to mean _gese_, and under that appellation was deposited in the king’s archives at Aix. See BOUCHER, _Hist. Prov._ Liv. ii. c. 4. p. 82. This same author further asserts, that the _Gési_, and the _Gessates_ took their names from that weapon. He quotes Julius Cæsar’s account of the word _gesi_ in confirmation of his own opinion. Many authors have mentioned the same term: among others, Justus, Lipsus, Hugo, Cheves, Vossius, &c.

GESSATE _ou_ GESATE, _Fr._ a knight among the ancient Gauls, who took delight in war, and frequently volunteered his services beyond the boundaries of his native country. Whenever a neighboring country made a levy of men, it was usual for the gessates to accompany the troops, from a conviction that it would be dishonorable in them to remain inactive at home. These adventurers, or knights-errant, were called gessates, either on account of the gessus or large dart, which they carried, or, as Polybius imagines, on account of the subsistence which was paid them, and was called by that name.

GESTURE, a motion of the body intended to signify some idea, or passion of the mind. All officers and soldiers who make use of any menacing gesture before a commanding or superior officer, or before a court-martial, are liable to be punished by the laws of war.

GEZE, _Fr._ a rentrant angle, which is made with slate or lead, and forms a gutter between two roofs. It is likewise called _noue_, or pantile.

GHERIAH, a port on the Malabar Mahrattah coast of Hindustan, the capital part of Angria’s dominions, which consisted of an extent of coast, from whence this warlike state was a perpetual source of uneasiness to the trading ships of all the European nations in India. It cost the English East-India company 50,000_l._ annually to protect their own ships. Eight or ten grabs, and forty or fifty gallivats, crowded with men, generally composed Angria’s principal fleet in 1754, destined to attack ships of force or burthen. The vessel no sooner came in sight of the port or bay where the fleet was lying, than they slipped their cables and put out to sea. If the wind blew, their construction enabled them to sail almost as fast as the wind; and if it was calm, the gallivats rowing towed the grabs: when within cannon shot of the chace, they generally assembled in her wake, and the grabs attacked her at a distance with their prow guns, firing first only at the masts, and taking aim when the three masts of the vessel just opened all together to their view; by which means the shot would probably strike one or other of the three. As soon as the chase was dismasted, they came nearer, and battered her on all sides until she struck: and if the defence was obstinate, they sent a number of gallivats, with two or three hundred men in each, who boarded sword in hand from all quarters in the same instant.

The English trusting to the report of the natives, had until the year 1756, believed Gheriah to be at least as strong as Gibraltar, and like that situated on a mountain which was inaccessible from the sea, for this reason it was resolved to send vessels to reconnoitre it; which service commodore James, in the Protector, with two other ships, performed. He found the enemy’s fleet at anchor in the harbor, notwithstanding which, he approached within cannon shot of the fort, and having attentively considered it, returned at the end of December to Bombay, and described the place, such as it truly was, very strong indeed, but far from being inaccessible or impregnable. This place was taken by the English troops under the command of colonel Clive. There were found in it 200 pieces of cannon, six brass mortars, and a great quantity of ammunition, and military and naval stores of all kinds; the money and effects of other kinds, amounted to 1,200,000_l._ sterling. All this booty was divided amongst the captors, without any reserve either for the nation, or the company. In less than a month the English, with their allies the Mahrattas got possession of all the territories wrested from the latter by Angria’s predecessors, and which they had for seventy years despaired of ever being able to recover.

GIBERNE, _Fr._ a sort of bag in which the grenadiers held their hand-grenades. It was worn like a powder flask. They likewise carried, independent of this bag, a cartouch box containing 18 or 20 charges.

GIBRALTAR, a strong fortress of Andalusia, in Spain. Gibraltar was formerly thought to be impregnable; but it was taken by Sir George Rooke in 1704, and has remained in the hands of the English ever since. It has been several times attacked by the Spaniards, who have always been unsuccessful. Their last effort to recover it was made September 13th, 1782, with floating batteries, in which were mounted 212 brass cannon and mortars. The French united with the Spaniards on this memorable occasion; and the brother to the last king of the French, (then Count D’Artois) commanded the camp of St. Roche, from whence the offensive operations were directed. General Elliot, (afterwards called lord Heathfield) had prepared a great number of red-hot balls against the attack; and these so effectually destroyed the floating batteries, that the Spaniards were greatly annoyed, and relinquished the enterprize. For particulars, see Drinkwater’s siege of Gibraltar.

GIN, in military mechanics, is a machine for raising great weights: it is composed of 3 long legs, 2 of which are kept at a proper distance by means of 2 iron bars fixed on one of the legs by a staple passing through a hole at one end: the other end has a hook which enters into a staple fixed into the other leg so as to be taken off or put on at pleasure.

At 3 feet from the bottom is a roller, upon which the cable was wound; and the 3 legs are joined together with an iron bolt, about which they move: to this bolt, is also fixed an iron half-ring to hook on a windlass: when the gin stands upright, so as the legs stand at a proper distance, one end of the cable is fastened to a gun, mortar, or other weight; and the other passes through the pullies and about the roller, which is turned round by means of hand-spikes passing through the holes in the ends of the roller: whilst a man holds the cable tight, the gun is raised to the height required, so that the carriage may be put under it.

GIN _Triangle_--Length of arms of the gin 16 feet 4¹⁄₂ inches. Roller, 6 feet long. Tackle fall, 78 feet of 3 inch white rope. Sling, 6 inch white rope.

The newly constructed gin, by having one half of the roller of a greater diameter than the other, gives a new power, that of elevating or lowering the object in a greater or lesser proportion, according to the end of the cylinder upon which the cable is fixed.

For the different exercises of the gin, see the word EXERCISE.