A Complete Grammar of Esperanto
Chapter 3
as "dis-meti", "mal-akra", and compound words are divided into their component parts, as "cxef-urbo", "sun-ombrelo".
ACCENT.
8. Words of more than one syllable are accented upon the syllable before the last, as "TA-blo", "a-GRA-bla", "sus-PEK-ti".
WORDS FOR PRACTICE.
9. (To be pronounced aloud, and correctly accented) Afero, trairi, najbaro, aero, hodiaux, pacienco, centono, cxielo, ecx, samideano, treege, obei, obeu, Euxropo, gvidi, gxojo, cxiujn, justa, gxuste, jugxi, jxauxdo, lingvo, knabo, largxa, pagi, kvieteco, ekzemplo, ellerni, fojo, krajono, forrajdi, kuirejo, cxevalejo, sankteco, scio, nescio, edzo, meze, duobla, sxipo, sxargxi, posxo, svingi, sklavo, palaj, sxafajxo, atmosfero, monahxo, geometrio, lauxdi, vasta, eksplodi, sencxesa, sensencajxo, malluma, arbaranoj, mangxo, fresxa, auxskulti, dauxri.
LESSON II.
NOUNS.
10. Words which are the names of persons or things are called nouns. The ending, or final letter, of nouns in Esperanto is "o":
knabo = boy. pomo = apple. cxevalo = horse. tablo = table.
THE ARTICLE.
11. The definite article is "la", the, as "la knabo", the boy, "la cxevalo", the horse, "la tablo", the table, "la pomo", the apple. In English there is an indefinite article "a, an" for the singular, but none for the plural. Esperanto has no indefinite article for either singular or plural. Therefore "knabo" may mean "boy", or "a boy", "pomo" may mean "apple" or "an apple".
ADJECTIVES
12. A word used with a noun (expressed or understood) to express a quality or characteristic is called an adjective. The ending of adjectives in Esperanto is "a":
bela = beautiful. granda = large. flava = yellow. forta = strong.
ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES.
13. An adjective is said to modify a noun whose quality it expresses. When directly preceding or following its noun, it is called an attributive adjective:
la granda cxevalo = the large horse. bela birdo = a beautiful bird. floro flava = a yellow flower. forta knabo = a strong boy.
PRESENT TENSE OF THE VERB.
14. Words which express action or condition are called verbs. When representing an act or condition as a fact, and dealing with the present time, they are said to be in the present tense. The ending of all Esperanto verbs in the present tense is "-as":
kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. flugas = flies, is flying. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping.
15. The person or thing whose action or condition the verb expresses is called the subject of the verb:
La suno brilas, the sun shines (is shining), subject: suno. Knabo kuras, a boy runs (is running), subject: knabo.
VOCABULARY.
(To be memorized in this and in all following lessons.)
bela = beautiful. kaj = and. birdo = bird. kantas = sings, is singing. blanka = white. knabo = boy. bona = good. kuras = runs, is running. brilas = shines, is shining. la = the. cxevalo = horse. luno = moon. dormas = sleeps, is sleeping. marsxas = walks, is walking. flava = yellow. pomo = apple. floro = flower. suno = sun. flugas = flies, is flying. tablo = table. forta = strong, violo = violet. granda = large. viro = man.
READING LESSON.
1. Bona viro. 2. La granda tablo. 3. Blanka floro. 4. Flava birdo. 5. La bela birdo kantas. 6. Forta knabo kuras. 7. La bona viro marsxas. 8. La bela cxevalo kuras. 9. La suno brilas. 10. Birdo flugas kaj knabo kuras. 11. Cxevalo blanka marsxas. 12. La bela luno brilas. 13. La knabo kantas kaj la viro dormas. 14. Bela granda pomo. 15. La bona knabo kantas. 16. La granda cxevalo dormas. 17. La suno brilas kaj la luno brilas. 18. Granda forta tablo. 19. Violo flava. 20. La bona flava pomo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. A beautiful flower. 2. A good large table. 3. A yellow violet and a white violet. 4. The moon is-shining (shines). 5. The good boy is-walking (walks). 6. The beautiful yellow bird is-flying (flies). 7. The strong man is-sleeping (sleeps). 8. The white bird is-singing (sings). 9. A strong horse runs, and a man walks. 10. The sun shines, and the boy is-singing (sings). 11. The large yellow apple. 12. An apple large and good.
LESSON III.
THE PLURAL NUMBER.
16. The plural number of nouns, that is, the form which indicates more than one person or thing, is made by adding "-j" to the noun, as "viroj", men, from "viro", man; "tabloj", tables, from "tablo", table.
[Footnote: "-oj" is pronounced like "oy" in "boy". See 5.]
17. An adjective modifying a plural noun agrees with it in number, being given the plural form by the addition of the ending -j. An adjective modifying two or more nouns used together is of course given the plural form:
bonaj viroj, good men. grandaj cxevaloj, large horses. belaj birdo kaj floro (bela birdo kaj bela floro), beautiful bird and (beautiful) flower.
[Footnote: "-aj" is pronounced like "ai" in "aisle". See 5.]
18. The article is invariable, that is, does not change in form when used with plural nouns, as "la viro", the man, "la viroj", the men. The verb is also invariable in form:
La viroj marsxas, the men walk, the men are walking. La suno kaj la luno brilas, the sun and the moon are shining. La viro estas, the man is. La viroj estas, the men are.
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND NOUN.
19. When the adjective is a part of that which is told or predicated of the subject of the verb, as when used with the verbs "to be," "to seem," etc., it is called a "predicate adjective":
La birdo estas bela, the bird is beautiful. La knabo sxajnas bona, the boy seems good. La viroj estas fortaj, the men are strong.
20. A noun may also be used as part of the predicate, and is then called a "predicate noun":
Violoj estas floroj, violets are flowers. La kolombo estas birdo, the dove is a bird.
21. Predicate nouns and adjectives agree in number with the word or words with which they are in predicate relation:
Rozoj estas belaj, roses are beautiful. La knabo kaj la viro sxajnas fortaj, the boy and the man seem strong.
VOCABULARY
alta = high, tall. kolombo = dove. arbo = tree. kusxas = lies, is lying, lie. cxambro = room. longa = long. domo = house. rozo = rose. en = in. rugxa = red. estas = is, are. segxo = chair. folio = leaf. sidas = sits, sit, is sitting. fresxa = fresh. sur = on. gxardeno = garden. sxajnas = seems, seem. kampo = field. verda = green.
READING LESSON.
1. La alta viro estas en la gxardeno. 2. Blanka cxevalo estas en la kampo. 3. Belaj birdoj sidas sur la verda arbo. 4. La bonaj knaboj estas en la domo. 5. La cxambroj en la bela domo estas grandaj. 6. Fresxaj floroj kusxas sur la tablo. 7. La violoj en la kampo estas belaj. 8. La luno kaj la suno sxajnas grandaj. 9. La kolomboj estas belaj birdoj. 10. La knaboj sxajnas fortaj. 11. Rugxaj pomoj estas sur la tablo en la cxambro. 12. La fortaj viroj sidas sur segxoj en la longa cxambro. 13. La arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. 14. La kolomboj sur la arboj kantas. 15. Fortaj cxevaloj marsxas kaj kuras en la verdaj kampoj. 16. La knaboj dormas en la granda domo. 17. Rugxaj, flavaj, kaj verdaj folioj estas en la gxardeno. 18. Longa tablo estas en la domo. 19. Belaj birdoj flugas kaj kantas en la kampo. 20. Fresxaj rozoj sxajnas belaj. 21. La folioj estas verdaj kaj rugxaj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The trees in the garden are tall and green. 2. The rooms in the house are long. 3. The flowers on the table are red, yellow and white. 4. The leaves are long and green. 5. The men are-sitting (sit) on chairs in the garden. 6. In the garden are yellow roses. 7. The birds in the field are doves. 8. The boys in the room in the house seem tall. 9. Fresh violets are beautiful flowers. 10. The horses in the green fields seem strong. 11. Doves are-singing (sing) in the garden. 12. The men in the large house sleep. 13. The house is long and high, and the rooms in the house are large. 14. Red and yellow apples lie on the big table. 15. Green leaves are on the trees in the large garden.
LESSON IV.
TRANSITIVE VERBS.
22. The verbs so far given have been "intransitive verbs", expressing a state or an action limited to the subject, and not immediately affecting any other person or thing, as "la knabo kuras", the boy runs. On the other hand a "transitive verb" expresses an act of the subject upon some person or thing; as, "la knabo trovas -- --", the boy finds -- --.
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.
23. The person or thing acted upon is called the "direct object" of a transitive verb, and is given the ending "-n". This is called the accusative ending; and the word to which it is attached is said to be in the "accusative case":
La viro havas segxon, the man has a chair. La knabo trovas florojn, the boy finds flowers.
[Footnote: The ending "-n" follows the ending "-j", if the word to be put in the accusative case is in the plural number.]
24. An attributive adjective modifying a noun in the accusative case is made to agree in case, by addition of the same accusative ending "-n". This prevents any doubt as to which of two or more nouns in a sentence is modified by the adjective, and permits of variation in the order of the words:
La knabo trovas belan floron, the boy finds a beautiful flower. Florojn belajn la viro havas, the man has beautiful flowers. La viro havas grandan segxon, the man has a large chair. Rugxan rozon la knabo havas, the boy has a red rose.
25. A predicate adjective or noun (19) is never in the accusative case, nor is the accusative ending ever attached to the article, which is invariable as stated in 18.
THE CONJUNCTION "KAJ".
26. In the expression "both ... and ...", the conjunction "kaj" is used for both words, being merely repeated:
La viro kaj marsxas kaj kuras, the man both walks and runs. La cxevalo estas kaj granda kaj forta, the horse is both large and strong. La knabo havas kaj rozojn kaj violojn, the boy has both roses and violets. Kaj la knabo kaj la viro estas altaj, both the boy and the man are tall.
THE NEGATIVE "NE".
27. The negative word meaning "not" when forming part of a sentence, and "no" when used as an answer to a question, is "ne". When used as a sentence-negative, it usually immediately precedes the verb. For emphatic negation of some other word than the verb, "ne" may precede that word:
Violoj ne estas rugxaj, violets are not red. La viroj ne sidas sur segxoj, the men are-not-sitting on chairs. La kolombo kantas, ne flugas, the dove is-singing, not flying. La domo estas blanka, ne verda, the house is white, not green.
VOCABULARY
apud = near, in the vicinity of. koloro = color. benko = bench. largxa = wide, broad. brancxo = branch. mangxas = eat, eats. diversa = various. mola = soft. felicxa = happy. nigra = black. frukto = fruit. ne = not, no. havas = have, has. rompas = break, breaks. herbo = grass. sed = but. ili = they. trovas = find, finds. kolektas = gather, collect. vidas = see, sees.
READING LESSON.
1. La knaboj ne estas en la cxambro en la blanka domo. 2. Ili estas en la granda gxardeno. 3. La gxardeno sxajnas kaj longa kaj largxa. 4. La felicxaj knaboj vidas la belan gxardenon. 5. Ili vidas florojn apud alta arbo. 6. La floroj havas diversajn kolorojn. 7. La knaboj kolektas kaj rugxajn kaj flavajn florojn. 8. Sed ili ne trovas fruktojn en la gxardeno. 9. Florojn blankajn ili ne vidas. 10. La alta arbo havas verdajn foliojn sur la brancxoj. 11. La knaboj rompas brancxon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. 12. Ili vidas florojn sur la brancxoj, sed la florojn ili ne kolektas. 13. La knaboj ne sidas sur benkoj en la gxardeno, sed kusxas sur la mola herbo. 14. La kolomboj sidas sur la arboj, kaj ili estas felicxaj. 15. La knaboj vidas la belajn birdojn. 16. Fortaj nigraj cxevaloj mangxas la herbon en la kampo. 17. La knaboj vidas la cxevalojn, sed la cxevaloj ne vidas la knabojn. 18. La cxevaloj ne dormas, ili mangxas. 19. La fresxa herbo estas verda kaj mola. 20. Felicxaj estas kaj la knaboj kaj la cxevaloj. 21. La pomo estas bona frukto.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Green leaves are on the trees. 2. The boys break branches and gather the apples. 3. They are near the tall tree in the garden. 4. They find leaves on the tree, but they do not see the fruit. 5. The house is long, broad and high. 6. The rooms in the house are both long and wide. 7. The men have strong black horses. 8. The horses eat the fresh green grass in the field. 9. The men sit on benches in the garden. 10. The boys do not sleep, but they lie on the soft grass. 11. They see both the birds and the flowers, and they seem happy. 12. The flowers have various colors, but the grass is green. 13. The doves are not sitting on the tree, they are flying near the trees. 14. Beautiful red roses are lying on the table in the house. 15. The large red apples are near the yellow roses.
LESSON V.
THE COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE.
28. The infinitive is a form of the verb which expresses merely the general idea of the action or condition indicated, and has some of the characteristics of a noun. The ending of the infinitive is "-i", as "kuri", to run, "esti", to be, "havi", to have.
29. An infinitive used to complete the meaning of another verb, serving as a direct object to a transitive verb, is called a "complementary infinitive". If the complementary infinitive is from a transitive verb, it may itself have a direct object:
La knabo volas kuri, the boy wishes to run. Birdoj sxatas kanti, birds like to sing. La knabo volas havi cxevalon, the boy wishes to have a horse. Ili volas trovi florojn, they wish to find flowers.
INTERROGATION.
30. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. Unless some directly interrogative word (as "who," "when," "why," etc.) is used, the sentence is rendered interrogative by use of the word "cxu". This interrogative particle is placed at the beginning of a sentence, the words of which are left in the same order as for a statement. Since there is no inversion of order, there is no necessity for a word like English "do" or "does," to introduce the verb:
Cxu la knabo estas bona? Is the boy good? Cxu ili havas florojn? Have they flowers? Cxu la kolomboj kantas? Do the doves sing? (Are the doves singing?)
THE CONJUNCTION "NEK".
31. In the expression "neither ... nor ...", the conjunction "nek" is used for both words. Since an adjective modifier of two or more words connected by "nek" must necessarily modify them separately, the adjective remains in the singular number:
Ili nek marsxas nek kuras, they neither walk nor run. La viro havas nek domon nek gxardenon, the man has neither a house nor a garden. Nek la rozo nek la violo estas verda, neither the rose nor the violet is green.
VOCABULARY
(Verbs will hereafter be quoted in the infinitive form.)
bruna = brown. matura = ripe. cxerizo = cherry. Mario = Mary. cxu = (30). nek = neither, nor. dolcxa = sweet. persiko = peach. gusto = taste. jes = yes. gxi = it. preferi = to prefer. Gertrude = Gertrude. sxati = to like. knabino = girl. voli = to wish.
READING LESSON.
1. Cxu persiko estas rugxa? 2. Jes, gxi estas kaj rugxa kaj dolcxa. 3. Cxu cxerizoj estas brunaj? 4. Ne, ili estas nek brunaj nek nigraj, sed flavaj. 5. Cxu la pomo estas frukto? Jes, gxi estas bona frukto. 6. Cxu la viro kaj la knabo havas pomojn? 7. Ne, ili havas nek pomojn nek persikojn. 8. Cxu Mario havas la maturan frukton? 9. Mario kaj Gertrudo havas la frukton. 10. Ili estas en la domo, kaj mangxas la maturan frukton. 11. La persikoj havas dolcxan guston. 12. La knabinoj volas havi florojn, sed la knaboj preferas kolekti diversajn fruktojn. 13. Ili volas trovi maturajn cxerizojn kaj flavajn persikojn. 14. La cxerizoj havas belan rugxan koloron. 15. La persikoj sxajnas molaj kaj bonaj. 16. Mario rompas brancxon, kaj vidas cxerizojn sur la brancxoj. 17. Gertrudo estas felicxa, kaj volas havi la belan frukton. 18. Gertrudo estas alta, bela knabino. 19. Mario sxatas cxerizojn. 20. La knaboj kaj knabinoj sidas sur la verda herbo, kaj mangxas la cxerizojn. 21. Ili ne volas mangxi pomojn, ili preferas la dolcxajn cxerizojn. 22. La folioj apud la cxerizoj estas nek largxaj nek longaj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Have the girls beautiful flowers? 2. No, they have fresh fruit. 3. The boys do not wish to gather flowers. 4. They prefer to break the branches, and find the sweet cherries. 5. Gertrude wishes to eat apples, but Mary has neither apples nor peaches. 6. Do the girls like to sit in the house and eat fruit? 7. Yes, they like to sit in the house, but they prefer to walk in the field. 8. Are ripe peaches brown? 9. No, they are red and yellow. 10. Has the peach a sweet taste? 11. Do the girls see the beautiful black horses in the fields? 12. Yes, they see the horses, but the horses seem not to see the girls. 13. Mary sits on the soft green grass, and eats ripe fruit.
LESSON VI.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
32. Words which stand in the place of nouns, as "you," "he," "who," "which," are called "pronouns". Pronouns referring to the person speaking ("I", "we"), the person addressed ("you", "thou"), or the person or thing spoken of ("he", "she", "it", "they"), are called "personal pronouns". They are considered singular or plural, according to whether they refer to one or more persons. Since the meaning of such pronouns indicates the number, no plural ending is ever attached to them. The personal pronouns are:
Singular. Plural.
First person: mi, I (me). ni, we (us).
Second person: vi, you. vi, you.
li, he (him). Third person: sxi, she (her). ili, they (them). gxi, it.
[Footnote: There is another pronoun "ci" (thou), for the second person singular, used in solemn style, as in the Bible, in poetry, and also for intimate or familiar address when desired, like German "du", French "tu", etc.]
AGREEMENT WITH PRONOUNS.
33. Nouns in predicate relation with pronouns, or adjectives modifying such pronouns, are made to agree with them in number:
Ni estas bonaj kaj felicxaj, we are good and happy. Rozoj estas floroj, ili ne estas fruktoj, roses are flowers, they are not fruits. Gertrudo, vi estas bona, Gertrude, you are good. Knabinoj, cxu vi estas felicxaj? Girls, are you happy?
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
34. Any pronoun may serve as the subject of a verb. The combination of the verb with each of the personal pronouns in succession for its subject, is called the "conjugation" of the verb. Following is the conjugation of the present tense of "esti", and of "vidi":
mi estas = I am. mi vidas = I see. vi estas = you are. vi vidas = you see. li (sxi, gxi) estas = li (sxi, gxi) vidas : he (she, it) is. he (she, it) sees. ni estas = we are. ni vidas = we see. vi estas = you (plural) are. vi vidas = you (plural) see. ili estas = they are. ili vidas = they see.
VOCABULARY
al = to, toward. hodiaux = today. Arturo = Arthur. kudri = to sew. aux = or (aux ... aux ..., either ... or ...) Roberto = Robert. cxar = because. skui = to shake. doni = to give. stari = to stand. fali = to fall. sub = under, beneath. fenestro = window. virino = woman.
READING LESSON.
1. Knaboj, cxu vi volas sidi en la domo, aux en la gxardeno? 2. Ni preferas sidi hodiaux en la gxardeno, sub la granda arbo. 3. Cxu vi havas pomojn, aux cxerizojn? 4. Ni havas nek pomojn nek cxerizojn, sed ni havas dolcxajn persikojn. 5. Arturo donas al vi la maturajn persikojn, cxar li sxatas kolekti frukton. 6. Arturo, cxu vi rompas la brancxojn? 7. Ne, sed mi skuas brancxon, kaj la persikoj falas. 8. Mi staras sub la arbo, kaj kolektas la dolcxan frukton. 9. La frukton mi donas al Mario kaj Gertrudo. 10. Mi volas doni persikon al Heleno, sed hodiaux sxi estas en la domo. 11. Sxi sidas apud la fenestro kaj kudras. 12. Sxi preferas kudri, kaj volas nek marsxi nek sidi en la gxardeno. 13. Kaj sxi kaj la virino apud sxi volas kudri hodiaux. 14. Ili estas felicxaj, cxar ili vidas la birdojn en la arbo apud la fenestro. 15. La birdoj estas kolomboj, kaj sidas sur la arbo. 16. Sub la arboj en la kampo staras cxevaloj, kaj ili mangxas la verdan molan herbon. 17. Ni donas pomojn al ili, cxar ili sxatas pomojn. 18. Ni estas felicxaj, cxar ni havas belajn persikojn maturajn kaj bonajn. 19. Roberto, vi estas alta, sed vi, knabinoj, ne estas altaj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Does Arthur break the branch and gather the apples? 2. No, he shakes the branch, and the apples fall. 3. They are ripe and sweet. 4. Robert, do you wish to stand beneath the tree? 5. No, I do not wish to stand under it, but near it. 6. I wish to give both the peaches and the apples to the woman. 7. She is sitting in the house, near the window. 8. Mary is sitting in (on) a chair near her. 9. Both Mary and the woman are sewing. 10. They prefer to sew, and do not wish to walk in the garden to-day. 11. They are happy because they like to sew. 12. They do not wish to gather flowers, or walk, or see the birds. 13. They have neither apples nor peaches, but they do not wish to eat. 14. They give the fruit to the boys and girls.
LESSON VII.
THE PAST TENSE.
35. The past tense of the verb expresses an action which took place in past time, or a condition which existed in past time. The ending of this tense is "-is", as "kuris", ran, "flugis", flew, "brilis", shone. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the past tense is as follows:
mi estis = I was. mi vidis = I saw. vi estis = you were. vi vidis = you saw. li (sxi, gxi) estis = li (sxi, gxi) vidis : he (she, it) was. he (she, it) saw. ni estis = we were. ni vidis = we saw. vi estis = you (plural) were. vi vidis = you (plural) saw. ili estis = they were. ili vidis = they saw.
PREPOSITIONS.
36. A preposition is a word like "in," "on," placed before a noun or pronoun to indicate some relation between this and another word. The preposition is said to "govern" the noun or pronoun, which is called its "complement". In English, the complement of a preposition seems to be put in the accusative case if it is a pronoun, but to remain unchanged in form if it is a noun. In Esperanto the preposition does not affect the form of the word governed, which remains in the nominative case:
La arbo estas en la gxardeno, the tree is in the garden. Bonaj pomoj estas sur gxi, good apples are on it. Mi donis cxerizojn al li, I gave cherries to him. La knabo estas apud mi, the boy is near me. Sub la arbo staris cxevalo, under the tree stood a horse.
ACCUSATIVE CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
37. For use as the object of a verb, any pronoun may be put in the accusative case by addition of the accusative ending "-n" (23):
La viro vidis vin kaj min, the man saw you and me. Li vidis ilin kaj nin, he saw them and us. Mi vidis nek lin nek sxin, I saw neither him nor her. Ni volas havi gxin, we wish to have it.
VOCABULARY
agrabla = pleasant, agreeable. luma = light (not dark). bildo = picture. muro = wall. blua = blue. nun = now. danki = to thank. planko = floor. de = from. pordo = door. diri = to say. rigardi = to look (at). infano = child. tapisxo = carpet. interesa = interesting. tra = through.
READING LESSON.
1. Hodiaux la knaboj kaj knabinoj estas en la granda domo. 2. Ili staras apud la tablo, en agrabla luma cxambro. 3. Gxi havas altajn largxajn fenestrojn. 4. Sub la tablo kaj segxoj, mola tapisxo kusxas sur la planko. 5. La tapisxo havas belajn kolorojn, rugxan, bluan, flavan, kaj verdan. 6. Virino marsxis tra la pordo, kaj staris apud la tablo. 7. Sxi havis interesajn bildojn, kaj donis ilin al la knaboj kaj la knabinoj. 8. Sxi diris "Cxu vi volas rigardi la bildojn?" 9. "Jes, ni dankas vin," diris la infanoj, kaj sxi donis al ili la bildojn. 10. Granda bildo falis de la tablo, sed Arturo nun havas gxin. 11. Li donas gxin al Mario, sxi dankas lin, kaj donas gxin al Roberto. 12. Ili volis doni gxin al Gertrudo, sed sxi diris "Ne, mi dankas vin, mi ne sxatas rigardi bildojn." 13. Sxi marsxis de la tablo al la fenestro kaj diris "Mi preferas kudri." 14. Sxi volis sidi en granda segxo apud la fenestro. 15. La virino rigardis sxin kaj diris "Mi donis la bildojn al vi, knaboj kaj knabinoj," cxar ili estas interesaj bildoj. 16. Gertrudo diris "Vi estas bona al ni, sed mi volas sidi apud la pordo aux la fenestro. 17. Mi kolektis dolcxajn violojn en la gxardeno, kaj nun mi volas rigardi la dolcxajn florojn, kaj kudri."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Do the boys and girls wish to be good? 2. They gathered fresh flowers and gave them to the woman. 3. The happy children were in the garden, but now they are in the house. 4. The rooms in the house are light, because they have large wide windows. 5. The doors in the room are wide and high. 6. The carpets on the floor seem soft, and have various beautiful colors. 7. A large strong table stands near the door. 8. We can sit near the table and look through the windows. 9. Gertrude is-looking-at the various pictures. 10. She looks-at them, and seems to be happy. 11. She gave a picture to me and I thanked her. 12. Helen walked near the table and shook it. 13. Arthur did not see the pictures because they were lying on the floor. 14. He looked-at the pictures on the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful. 15. Robert looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden.
LESSON VIII.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
38. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be used "reflexively", or to be a "reflexive pronoun".
39. The first and second personal pronouns, "mi", "ni", and "vi", ("ci") are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves (thee, thyself)," can refer to no one else than the person or persons addressed:
Mi vidas min, I see myself. Mi diris al mi, I said to myself. Ni havas tapisxon sub ni, we have a carpet under us. Ni amuzis nin, we amused ourselves. (Ci trovas domon apud ci, thou findest a house near thee.) Vi diras al vi, you say to yourself (yourselves). Vi amuzas vin, you amuse yourself (yourselves).
40. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the subject of that verb. For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun "si" (accusative "sin"), which means "him(self)", "her(self)", "it(self)", "them(selves)", according to the gender and number of the verb:
Li amuzas sin, he amuses himself. Arturo vidis birdon apud si, Arthur saw a bird near him(self). Sxi trovas floron apud si, she finds a flower near her(self). Mario trovis sin sur blua tapisxo, Mary found herself on a blue carpet. La tapisxo havas diversajn kolorojn en si, the carpet has various colors in it(self). La birdo kasxas sin sub la folioj, the bird hides itself under the leaves. Ili amuzas sin, they amuse themselves. La viroj havas segxojn apud si, the men have chairs near them(selves). La virinoj trovas florojn apud si, the women find flowers near them(selves). La arboj havas cxerizojn sur si, the trees have cherries on them(selves). Sub si la infanoj trovis molan tapisxon, under them(selves) the children found a soft carpet.
[Footnote: From the very fact that "si" always refers to the subject of the verb, it is evident that "si" can never itself be used as subject or part of the subject of the verb.]
REFLEXIVE VERBS.
41. A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes called a "reflexive verb", from the fact that some languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive. The conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows:
mi amuzas min (mi min amuzas), I amuse myself. vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourself. li (sxi, gxi) amuzas sin (sin amuzas), he (she, it) amuses him (her, it)self. ni amuzas nin (ni nin amuzas), we amuse ourselves. vi amuzas vin (vi vin amuzas), you amuse yourselves. ili amuzas sin (ili sin amuzas), they amuse themselves.
[Footnote: As Greek "etraponto", they turned themselves; Latin "exerceor", I exercise myself, "vescor", I eat (I feed myself); German "ich huete mich", I beware (I guard myself); Spanish "me alegro", or "alegrome", I rejoice (I gladden myself); French "il s'arrete", he halts (he stops himself).]
VOCABULARY
Alfredo = Alfred. komenci = to begin. amuzi = to amuse. lauxdi = to praise. antaux = before, in front of. legi = to read. aparteni = to belong. libro = book. griza = gray. perdi = to lose. iri = to go. skatolo = small box or case. Johano = John. strato = street. kasxi = to hide, to conceal. si = himself, etc. (40).
READING LESSON.
1. Johano kaj Alfredo amuzis sin en la gxardeno. 2. Johano kasxis sin, kaj Alfredo trovis Johanon. 3. Alfredo sin kasxis en alta arbo, kaj Johano trovis Alberton. 4. Mario kaj Gertrudo sin kasxis apud la floroj, kaj la knaboj trovis la knabinojn. 5. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo. 6. Johano komencis amuzi sin en luma cxambro en la domo. 7. La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. 8. Tra la fenestro antaux si Johano rigardas la virojn kaj la virinojn sur la strato. 9. Li havas molan grizan tapisxon sub si, kaj ne volas segxon. 10. Li kaj Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. 11. Ili marsxis al la pordo, kaj trovis rugxan skatolon antaux si. 12. En la skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi." 13. Li diris al Alfredo "Cxar ni trovis gxin, mi volas legi la libron." 14. Virino antaux pordo komencis rigardi la knabojn, kaj ili diris al sxi "Cxu la libro apartenas al vi? Ni trovis gxin en skatolo." 15. La virino diris "Jes, ni perdis gxin, kaj mi dankas vin, cxar vi donas al mi la skatolon kaj la libron." 16. Sxi iris al la strato, kaj la knaboj iris al la domo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The book in the gray box does not belong to me. 2. I found it in front of me, near the door. 3. You began to praise yourselves, but I do not praise myself. 4. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. 5. The birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. 6. Alfred amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the house. 7. The trees have good fruit on them. 8. She found herself in a beautiful light room. 9. The carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high wall had pictures on it. 10. The pictures had boys and girls in them. 11. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. 12. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. 13. Did you see the doves near the flowers in front of (before) you? 14. The birds saw the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches. 15. I sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. 16. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing. 17. The child is in a pleasant room.
LESSON IX.
LIMITATION OF THE THIRD PERSONAL PRONOUN.
42. Since there is a special reflexive pronoun of the third person, the third personal pronouns, "li", "sxi", "gxi", "ili", when used otherwise than as subjects, never refer to the subject of the verb, but always to some other person or thing:
La knabo lauxdas lin, the boy praises him (another person). Sxi donas pomojn al sxi, she gives apples to her (to another person). La birdo vidis gxin, the bird saw it (something else than the bird). La knaboj kasxis ilin, the boys hid them (other persons or things). Ili trovis ilin apud si, they found them (other persons or things) near them(selves). La birdoj flugis al ili, the birds flew to them.
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.
43. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some possessive relation, are called "possessive adjectives". Possessive adjectives are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the adjective ending "-a", as "mia", my, "via", your ("cia", thy), "lia", his, "sxia", her, "gxia", its, "nia", our, "via", your (plural), "ilia", their. The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns ("42") is also true of the adjectives derived from them:
Mia domo kaj miaj gxardenoj estas grandaj, my house and my gardens are large. Johano sidas sur via segxo, John is sitting in your chair. Li havas lian cxevalon, he has his (another person's) horse. Cxu vi legis sxiajn librojn? Did you read her books?
[Footnote: Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.]
44. Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives. The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is "sia", his, her, its, their, formed by adding the ending "-a" to the reflexive pronoun "si":
Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo, I have my books on my table. Johano perdis siajn librojn, John lost his (John's) books. Mario estas en sia cxambro, Mary is in her room. La birdoj flugis al sia arbo, the birds flew to their tree.
PRONOMINAL USE OF POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES.
45. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are large." Instead of having special forms, like English "mine", "yours", "hers", etc., Esperanto uses the regular possessive adjectives preceded by the article:
La granda libro estas la mia, the large book is mine. La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj, yours is large, mine are beautiful. Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian, they have theirs, but not his. La iliaj sxajnas esti bonaj, theirs seem to be good.
VOCABULARY
diro = saying, remark. mangxo = meal. gxis = as far as, up to, down to. nesto = nest. hieraux = yesterday. pasero = sparrow. juna = young. patro = father. kapti = to catch, to seize. post, after, behind. kato = cat. surprizi = to surprise. kolera = angry. teni = to hold, to keep. lavi = to wash. vizagxo = face.
READING LESSON.
1. Hieraux mi perdis mian grizan katon. 2. Ilia kato kaptis nian birdon. 3. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron. 4. Cxu la granda kampo apartenas al sxia patro? 5. Ne, gxi ne estas la lia. 6. La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. 7. Cxu vi sxatas vian libron aux la ilian? 8. Li havas nek siajn cxevalojn nek la iliajn. 9. La knabinoj sxajnas esti koleraj. 10. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. 11. La viro kaptis kaj tenis siajn cxevalojn, sed li ne trovis iliajn cxevalojn. 12. Sxia libro kusxas sur la planko, post sxia segxo. 13. Sxi ne trovis ilian libron, sed la junaj infanoj trovis la nian.
LA KATO KAJ LA PASERO.
Griza kato iris de la domo gxis la strato. Gxi vidis paseron antaux si, kaj volis mangxi gxin. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La pasero diris "Bona kato lavas sin antaux sia mangxo, sed vi ne lavis vian vizagxon." La interesa diro surprizis la katon. La kato ne tenis la paseron, sed komencis lavi sian vizagxon. La pasero flugis de la kato gxis la arbo. La kolera kato diris "Mi perdis mian mangxon, cxar mi komencis lavi min antaux la mangxo!" Nun la katoj ne lavas sin antaux la mangxoj. Ili havas siajn mangxojn, kaj post la mangxoj ili lavas la vizagxojn. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn. La katoj estas felicxaj, sed la paseroj ne estas felicxaj. La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their (the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest.
LESSON X.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.
46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "gxis", as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three):
Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward"). La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward").
[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.]
Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon, he was in the garden and ran into the house. Gxi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon, it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor. Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko, they fell under the table as far as the floor (direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase). Mi iris tra la domo en mian cxambron, I went through the house into my room.
THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.
47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized:
Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face. Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head. La patro estas alta, Father is tall. Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father.
APPOSITION.
48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition:
La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large. Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall. Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend?
VOCABULARY
arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place. baldaux = soon. nazo = nose. Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely. frato = brother. pusxi = to push. kamelo = camel. trans = across. kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all. kolo = neck. urbo = city. korpo = body. varma = warm.
LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.
Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi sxatas stari en gxi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans la strato kaj ne estis varma.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. 11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass under a tree.
LESSON XI.
POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.
49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection:
La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house. La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers. La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book). Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree. La gxardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden).
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:
Pluvas, it rains, it is raining. Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday.
VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.
51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such particles are needed:
Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table. Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno, it was John, not Alfred, in the garden. Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field. Estis mi, it was I.
COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.
52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be coordinate:
Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras? ("Aux" connects the verbs.)
Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj. ("Kaj" connects the sentences.)
Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin. (The second "nek" connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)
Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron. (The second "aux" connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial.)
Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon. ("Sed" connects the phrases.)
Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin. ("Tamen" connects the sentences.)
[Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.]
[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to their meaning: "Aux" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner.]
VOCABULARY
akvo = water. porti = to carry. amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy. ankaux = also. sablo = sand. bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag. dezerto = desert. seka = dry. fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless. mono = money. trinki = to drink. negxi = to snow. veni = to come. pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way.
LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.
Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn tapisxojn, cxar la arabo estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marsxis kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux volis lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en gxin. Li metis la nazon en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, cxar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj kusxis apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono estas en gxi.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. 16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. 21. They do not need money.
LESSON XII.
INDIRECT STATEMENTS.
53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an "indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction "ke," that.
Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux, John says that you came yesterday. Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako, she thinks that there is money in the bag.
[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.]
[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.]
THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI".
54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.:
Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich. Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends. Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin, I think that people like him (that he is liked). Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto, I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert. Oni opinias ke sxi estas felicxa, it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy. Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno? Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden? Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn, people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked).
THE FUTURE TENSE.
55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future tense is as follows:
mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see. vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see. li (sxi, gxi) estos = li (sxi, gxi) vidos : he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see. ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see. vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see. ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see.
VOCABULARY
auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54). blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine. greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern. ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain. kontraux = against. suda = south, southern. montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither. norda = north, northern. vento = wind. nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock. okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather.
LA VENTOFLAGO.
Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne sxatas. Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi venis kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras orientan venton. Gxi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaux negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi gxin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la domo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new house.
LESSON XIII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU".
56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those:
Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun, that is yours, and I wish that one. Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will be angry with you. Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things).
57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal adjective", in agreement with a noun:
Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm. Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock. Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young. Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books.
TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.
58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.)
Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good. " diris " " " " , I said that he was good. " diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good. Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear. " miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard. " miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear. Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good (I thought "it is good"). Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come (they wondered "will he come?").
[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people ask whether he is rich.]
FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.
59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as "frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o":
fratino = sister patrino = mother (from frato, brother). (from patro, father). knabino = girl virino = woman (from knabo, boy). (from viro, man).
[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German "Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", lion, etc.]
VOCABULARY
almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak. cxapelo = hat. parko = park. cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = almost. filo = son. pri = concerning, about. konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk. miri = to wonder. super = above. morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of). nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56). ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful.
EN LA PARKO.
Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux al mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la patrino pri la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaux la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong boy.
LESSON XIV.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU".
60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "cxi", which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may either precede or follow the pronoun:
Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one. Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these? Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister. Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk.
61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned:
Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko. Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin.
Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former (that one) looks at the flowers, the latter (this one) gathers them.
POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.
62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean "the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi tiu" shown in 61:
Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. Cxi ties filoj estas junaj, this person's (this one's) sons are young. Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron, I like that one's color, but prefer this flower. La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. Father and his friend are talking about their houses. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful.
THE SUFFIX "-IL-".
63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning permits:
flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly). kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch). kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew). montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show). tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold).
[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", "-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.]
THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.
64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition "per":
Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle. La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings. Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj, he amuses himself with (by) those pictures. Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help.
VOCABULARY
akra = sharp najbaro = neighbor. busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64). dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup. cxi (see 60). telero = plate. forko = fork. terpomo = potato. helpo = help. ties = that one's (62). kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut. kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly. mano = hand. viando = meat.
LA MANGXO.
Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi, kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran trancxilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la mangxo, najbaro de mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko volis doni almenaux kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj mangxis tiun.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, and also very good coffee.
LESSON XV.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.
65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such:
Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful. Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat. Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj, such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant. Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds.
ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.
66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows:
(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time).
baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow. hieraux = yesterday. nun = now. hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately.
(b) Adverbs of Degree.
almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost. nur = merely. tre = very, much.
(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.
addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even. interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes. proximity: cxi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27).
a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having "cxu" introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position):
Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not? La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not?
FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.
67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-":
malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall). malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend). maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right). malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help). maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young). malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new).
[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", "clumsy."]
VOCABULARY
dum = during. povi = to be able. ecx = even. preni = to take. gardi = to guard. propono = proposal. helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer. honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning. kara = dear. sxteli = to steal. kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65). kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately. nokto = night. vocxo = voice.
LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.
Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al sia amiko, "Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian cxevalon, cxar li estis malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza juna viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION. (Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.)
1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that "small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. 9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their "enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He said that either (aux) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded the horses.
LESSON XVI.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and "cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "cxi tie", here, in (at) this place:
La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place). La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place). Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla, there the weather seems very pleasant.
69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb (46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here:
Li iros tien, he will go there (thither). Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither). Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien, we were there and came here (hither).
ACCOMPANIMENT.
70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", with, along with:
La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato, the boy with that man is his brother.
[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so "mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.]
THE ADVERB "FOR".
71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal:
foriri = to go away, to depart. forkuri = to run away, to escape. forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert. formangxi = to eat away, to eat up. forpreni = to take away, to remove. fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up.
[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.]
THE MEANING OF "POVI".
72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb may have:
Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk. Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------. Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------.
VOCABULARY
el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase. cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket. for = away (71). rajdi = to ride. frua = early. rapidi = to hasten. glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay. horo = hour. sagxa = wise. kun = with (70). tie = there (68). lasi = to leave. voki = to call.
MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.
Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la cxevalojn.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither."
LESSON XVII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.
73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time:
Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj, now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and "superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs "more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and "plej", most:
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. --------------- ------------------------ -------------------------- bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest
75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned:
Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those. Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us. Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj, that one was the craftiest of the men.
MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.
76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun":
Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo, he took it with the greatest care. Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro, I heard him with interest and pleasure. Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto, she is a woman with (of) good taste. Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo, I have a horse with a strong body.
[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me with a strong hand.]
"DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI".
77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and "rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in use:
Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining. Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you). Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it. Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you.
VOCABULARY
ami = to love. pli = more (74). ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen. Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77). gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king. intereso = interest. servisto = servant. letero = letter. skribi = to write. plej = most (74). tiam = then (73). plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care.
FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.
Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him.
LESSON XVIII.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, so:
Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away. Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him. Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away.
DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.
79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives:
POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. ------------- ---------------------- ----------------------- sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly
"MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ".
80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and "malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". (These adverbs may also modify verbs):
Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous. Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp. La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly. Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully. Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less. Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least.
COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.
81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", "malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", "much", in the desired degree of comparison:
multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most
malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least
malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least
COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL".
82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended:
Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her. Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi, I love them more than she (loves them). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo, you helped the man less than the boy (helped him). Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon, you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy.
CAUSAL CLAUSES.
83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, for:
Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin, I came early, for I wished to see you. La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis, the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain.
VOCABULARY
anstataux = instead of. multa = much (multaj, many). aprilo = April. ofta = frequent (ofte, often). auxgusto = August. ol = than (82). jaro = year. printempo = spring (season). junio = June. tago = day. julio = July. sezono = season. majo = May. somero = summer. marto = March. tial = therefore (78). monato = month. vintro = winter.
PRI LA SEZONOJ.
La vintro estas la malplej agrabla sezono el la tuta jaro. Negxas tre multe, kaj tial oni nur malofte promenas, cxar la stratoj estas tro malsekaj. Oni marsxas kun granda zorgo, kaj malrapide ("slowly"), tial ke oni ne volas fali kaj preskaux rompi la kolon. Oni zorge gardas sin tiam kontraux la malvarmaj nordaj ventoj. La manojn oni metas en la posxojn, sed la vizagxon oni ne povas bone gardi. Mi ne sxatas resti ekster la domo dum tia vetero. Mi multe preferas sidi en varma luma cxambro, kaj skribi leterojn per bona plumo. La monatoj de la printempo estas marto, aprilo kaj majo. La bela printempo sxajnas pli agrabla ol la vintro. Gxiaj tagoj estas pli longaj kaj pli varmaj, gxiaj ventoj blovas malpli forte. En cxi tiu sezono la kampoj kaj arboj frue komencas montri plej belajn kolorojn. La birdoj konstruas siajn nestojn, kaj dolcxe kantas. Oni povas promeni sur la mola herbo, anstataux sur malsekaj malagrablaj stratoj. Pluvas pli multe en aprilo, tamen post la pluvo la herbo sxajnas pli verda, kaj la nuboj baldaux forflugas de la blua cxielo. Dum majo oni trovas violojn, kaj en junio oni vidas tre multajn rozojn. Sed la plej agrabla el la sezonoj estas la somero. Anstataux malvarmaj ventoj la somero havas la plej belan veteron, kun suda aux okcidenta ventoj. La longaj tagoj estas varmaj, sed la noktoj estas tute agrablaj. Tiam oni havas pli bonajn fruktojn ol dum la printempo. La monatoj de la somero estas junio, julio kaj auxgusto. Mi plej sxatas junion. Cxu vi sxatas gxin pli multe ol mi? Cxu vi sxatas auxguston pli multe ol julion?
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. I read a most interesting book about Frederick the Great. 2. It relates that he often stayed-awake and read with great interest during the later hours of the night. 3. His youngest servant was a small boy. 4. The king loved this boy more than [he loved] the older servants. 5. The winter is a less pleasant season than the spring, but the summer is more pleasant than that [season]. 6. During March the east winds blow most strongly, and shake the trees very much. 7. In April one needs his umbrella, for (the reason that) there are often clouds in the sky and it rains a great deal (very much). 8. The streets are very wet, but the water does not seem to wash them. 9. In May one begins to find sweet violets, and the birds in the trees above our heads sing very sweetly. 10. In June the most beautiful roses are seen (54). 11. July and August are the warmest months of the whole year. 12. The days are longer than the nights, and the weathercock shows west and south winds, instead of those disagreeable north and east winds. 13. One stays outside [of] the house then with greater pleasure, and goes walking in the parks. 14. I think that I like the summer better than you [do]. 15. Therefore I praise the summer more than you [do]. 16. However, I praise you more than [I praise] your younger brother. 17. He is less wise than you.
LESSON XIX.
"JU" AND "DES" IN COMPARISONS.
84. In clauses expressing a comparison between two objects, acts or states, the adverbial use of English "the ... the ..." (meaning "by how much ... by that much ...") is rendered by the adverbs "ju" and "des", respectively:
Ju pli bona li estas, des pli felicxa li estos, the better he is, the happier he will be. Ju pli ofte mi rigardas, des pli mi volas rigardi, the oftener I look, the more I wish to look. Ju pli bele la luno brilas, des pli oni sxatas la nokton, the more beautifully the moon shines, the more one likes the night. Ju malpli pluvas, des pli la floroj velkas, the less it rains, the more the flowers wither. Ju malpli multe vi helpas, des malpli multe mi lauxdos vin, the less you help, the less I shall praise you. Cxar vi helpis, mi des pli multe lauxdos vin, because you helped, I shall praise you the (that much) more.
[Footnote: Cf. Shakespeare, As You Like It, V, II, 49, "By so much the more shall I tomorrow be at the height of heart-heaviness, by how much I shall think my brother happy in having what he wishes for."]
THE PREPOSITION "INTER".
85. In English, the preposition "between" is used in reference to two persons or things, and "among" in reference to three or more. As the difference in meaning is not essential, Esperanto has but the one preposition inter to express both "between" and "among":
Li sidas inter vi kaj mi, he is sitting between you and me. Li sidas inter siaj amikoj, he is sitting among his friends. La monato majo estas inter aprilo kaj junio, the month of May is between April and June. Inter tiuj libroj estas tre interesa libro, among those books there is a very interesting book.
THE PREPOSITION "PRO".
86. Cause or reason may be expressed not only by an adverb (78) or a clause (83), but also by use of the preposition "pro", because of, on account of, for the sake of, for. It directs the thought away from the complement toward the action, feeling or state caused by it, or done in its interest or behalf:
La floroj velkas pro la seka vetero, the flowers wilt because of the dry weather. Mi skribis la leteron pro vi, I wrote the letter for you (for your sake). Pro tiuj nuboj mi timas ke pluvos, on account of those clouds I fear that it will rain. Oni sxatas cxerizojn pro la dolcxa gusto, people like cherries because of the sweet taste.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ADVERBS AND OTHER PREPOSITIONS.
87. Prepositions may be used with adverbs or with prepositional phrases when the meaning permits:
La kato kuris el sub la tablo, the cat ran out-from under the table. Li venos el tie, he will come out of there. De nun li estos zorga, from now he will be careful. Li staris dekstre de la vojo, he stood on the right of the road. Mi iros for de cxi tie, I shall go away from here.
VOCABULARY
auxtuno = autumn, fall. negxo = snow. decembro = December. novembro = November. des = (see 84). nuda = bare, naked. februaro = February. oktobro = October. glacio = ice. pro = because of (86). inter = between, among (85). rikolti = to harvest. januaro = January. rivero = river. ju = (see 84). septembro = September. kovri = to cover. tero = ground, earth.
LA AUXTUNO KAJ LA VINTRO.
La sezonoj de la jaro estas la vintro, la printempo, la somero, kaj la auxtuno. La auxtuno estas inter la somero kaj la vintro. Gxiaj monatoj estas septembro, oktobro kaj novembro. En septembro oni povas kolekti maturajn fruktojn. Tiam ankaux oni rikoltas la flavan grenon de la kampoj. Dum cxi tiu monato kaj dum oktobro la folioj sur la brancxoj komencas esti rugxaj kaj flavaj, anstataux verdaj. La herbo velkas, kaj bruna tapisxo sxajnas kovri la teron. Baldaux la folioj falas al la tero, kaj en novembro la arboj estas tute nudaj. Pli aux malpli frue negxas. La glacio ofte kovras la akvon en la riveroj, kaj restas sur la stratoj kaj la vojoj. La mola blanka negxo kovras la teron, kaj kusxas sur la brancxoj de la arboj. Tiam, pro la fortaj ventoj, gxi falas de la brancxoj al la tero. La birdoj frue lasas tian veteron, kaj flugas de cxi tie al pli sudaj kampoj kaj arboj. Ili ne povas resti, pro la malvarmaj tagoj kaj noktoj. Ili malsxatas la negxon kaj la glacion pli multe ol ni. Ju pli multe negxas; des pli malofte ni volas promeni. Ni preferas resti en la domo, anstataux ekster gxi. Ju pli ni rigardas la nudajn brancxojn de la arboj, des pli malagrabla sxajnas la vintro. Tamen la junaj infanoj tre sxatas tian veteron, kaj ju pli negxas, kaj ju pli forte la norda vento blovas, des malpli ili estas kontentaj en la domo. Ili volas kuri sur la negxo, cxirkaux la arboj kaj inter ili, kun siaj junaj amikoj. Ili povas bone amuzi sin per la negxo. La monatoj de la vintro estas decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Gxi estas la plej malvarma sezono.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. September, October and November are the months of autumn. 2. In these months, people harvest the yellow grain and gather various fruits. 3. The leaves on the trees around us begin to have red and yellow colors. 4. They begin to fall from the branches and lie upon the ground. 5. The more strongly the cold north wind blows through the branches, the sooner the leaves fall from there. 6. They lie under the bare trees, with the brown grass. 7. The sooner it snows, the sooner the ground will seem to have a white carpet. 8. The snow will completely ("tute") cover the grass during the months of the winter. 9. These months are December, January and February. 10. From that time ("de tiam") the ice and snow will cover the roads, and altogether ("tute") hide them. 11. There will often be ice on the water of the river. 12. We like this season of the year more than March, April and May. 13. We like it even more than the summer. 14. The months of the latter (62) are June, July and August. 15. The summer is the warmest season of the entire year. 16. Therefore we often say that the summer is the pleasantest season. 17. Because of its many pleasures, the summer is dear to me. 18. It is between the spring and the autumn.
LESSON XX.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.
88. The demonstrative adverb of manner and degree, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tiel", in that (this) manner, in such a way, thus, so. Like English "thus," "so," "tiel" may modify adjectives and other adverbs, by indicating degree:
Cxu oni tiel helpas amikon? Does one help a friend in that (this) way? Mi gxin skribis tiel, I wrote it thus (in such a way). La vetero estas tiel bela, the weather is so beautiful. Tiel mallonge li parolis, thus briefly he spoke. Mi trovis tiel belan floron, I found such a beautiful flower. Li prenis tiel multe, he took that much (so much).
PREPOSITIONS EXPRESSING TIME-RELATIONS.
89. The relations which prepositions express may be of various kinds. As in English, a certain number of prepositions primarily expressing place may also express time-relations. Such prepositions are "antaux", "cxirkaux", "de", "en", "gxis", "inter", "post", and "je" (whose use in other than time-relations will be explained later):
Mi foriros cxirkaux junio, I shall depart about June. De tiu horo mi estis via amiko, from that hour I was your friend. Li ne parolis al mi de tiu semajno, he did not speak to me since from) that week. En la tuta monato ne negxis, it did not snow in (at any time within) the entire month. Mi dormis gxis malfrua horo, I slept until (up to) a late hour. Gxis nun li ne vidis vin, until now he did not see you. Inter marto kaj junio mi iros tien, between March and June I shall go there. Je malfrua horo li foriris, at a late hour he went away. Mi iros tien je dimancxo, I shall go there on Sunday. Je tiu horo li vokis min, at that hour he called me. Sxi ne restis tie post julio, she did not stay there after July. Post ne longe mi vokos vin, soon (after not long) I shall call you.
90. When a definite date or point in time is expressed, "antaux" means "before." When used with an expression of an "amount" of time, it is to be translated by "ago" following the expression (not by "before" preceding it):
Antaux dimancxo mi foriros, before Sunday I shall go away. Mi vidis lin antaux tiu horo, I saw him before that hour. Li skribos gxin antaux la nova jaro, he will write it before New Year. Antaux multaj jaroj mi trovis gxin, many years ago I found it. Mi rompis gxin antaux longa tempo, I broke it a long time ago. Antaux tre longe vi legis tiun libron, you read that book very long ago. Li venis antaux ne longe, he came recently (not long ago). Antaux malmultaj jaroj li forkuris, a few years ago he escaped.
[Footnote: As already shown, "kun" expresses accompaniment, "per" expresses instrumentality, "pro" expresses cause, "kontraux" expresses opposition, "anstataux" expresses substitution, "sur", "apud", "sub", etc., express place, "dum" expresses time, etc.]
VOCABULARY
dimancxo = Sunday. mateno = morning. energia = energetic. promeno = walk, promenade. frosto = frost. rakonto = story, narrative. je = at, on (89). ripozi = to rest, to repose. kota = muddy. semajno = week. labori = to work, to labor. tempo = time. laca = tired, weary. tiel = thus, so (88) lundo = Monday. tro = too, too much. mardo = Tuesday. vespero = evening.
EN SEPTEMBRO.
Antaux multaj jaroj ni preferis resti en nia malgranda domo trans la rivero, dum la tuta auxtuno. Sed nun ni restas tie nur gxis oktobro. De auxgusto gxis oktobro la vetero estas tre agrabla tie, sed baldaux post tiu monato la fortaj ventoj blovas, kaj la folioj komencas fali. La frosto kovras la teron, kaj baldaux negxas tre ofte. Ju pli nudaj estas la arboj, des pli malbelaj ili sxajnas. La vetero antaux novembro ne estas tro malvarma, sed post tiu monato ni opinias ke la urbo estas pli agrabla ol domo inter kampoj kaj arboj, trans largxa rivero. La frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la teron en decembro, januaro kaj februaro. Sed la monato septembro sxajnas tre agrabla, pro siaj multaj plezuroj. La viroj laboras energie en la kampoj, de la mateno gxis la vespero. Ili rikoltas la flavan grenon, kaj kolektas la fruktojn. Sed je dimancxo oni ne laboras tiel energie, sed dormas gxis malfrua horo, tial ke je tiu tago oni ripozas. Je lundo oni komencas labori tre frue, kaj je mardo oni ankaux laboras energie. En septembro la vojoj ne estas tro kotaj, kaj longaj promenoj estas ofte agrablaj. Ju pli ofte mi promenas kun miaj amikoj, des pli multe mi sxatas tiajn promenojn. Sed hieraux mi estis tre laca post la promeno, tial mi ripozis sur granda mola segxo. Antaux ne longe la patro promenis kun mi, sed ni ne estis tiel lacaj je tiu tago. Sxajnas ke ju pli ofte ni promenas, des malpli lacaj ni estas post la promenoj. Post ne longe mi estos pli forta.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Many years ago we had a small house across the river. 2. We did not remain there during the entire year, but only in the warmer months of the summer. 3. Often we stayed until September or even until October. 4. My younger brothers and sisters amused themselves very well there from (the) morning until (the) evening. 5. They amused themselves among the flowers and trees, or went from there into the large fields. 6. Here the men work energetically, and harvest the ripe yellow grain. 7. Only on Sunday do they rest, because on that day one does not work. 8. Between August and November the men work more than in the winter. 9. In December and after that month they rest, for (83) from that time the frost, ice and snow cover the ground. 10. Because of the snow on the ground, long walks are not pleasant in the winter. 11. Recently (90) we went walking in the park across the river, but we were so tired after that walk! 12. The longer the walk is, the sooner one wishes to rest. 13. On Monday it rained, so (78) we read stories and wrote letters, in a pleasant light room in our house. 14. Before evening, however, the sun shone, and the streets were not so muddy. 15. On Tuesday these streets were almost dry, and soon the roads near the river and between the fields will also be dry. 16. A few years ago those roads were very good.
LESSON XXI.
THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.
91. Duration of time and a date or point in time may be expressed not only by use of the prepositions "dum", during, and "je", at, on, but also (as in English) without the use of any preposition. When no preposition is used, the word or words indicating time are put in the accusative case:
Li restis tie la tutan semajnon (dum la tuta semajno), he stayed there the whole week (during the whole week). Sxi estis felicxa longan tempon (dum longa tempo), she was happy a long time (during a long time; for a long time). Ni rajdos tagon kaj nokton (dum tago kaj nokto), we shall ride a day and a night (during a day and a night; for a day and a night). Mi venis dimancxon (je dimancxo), I came Sunday (on Sunday). Tiun horon (je tiu horo), li forkuris, that hour (at that hour) he escaped.
92. Although generally preferable, an accusative construction must be carefully placed, or avoided altogether, if confusion with other accusatives (expressing direction of motion, direct object, etc.) might result:
Mi volas iri Bostonon je lundo, I wish to go to Boston on Monday. Mi volas iri al Bostono lundon, I wish to go to Boston Monday. Lundon mi volas iri Bostonon, Monday I wish to go to Boston.
ADVERBS AND THE ACCUSATIVE OF TIME.
93. An accusative of time, as well as a temporal adverb, may further define or be defined by another expression of time:
Li venis longan tempon antaux tiu horo, he came a long time before that hour. Jaron post jaro ili restis tie, year after year they stayed there. hodiaux matene, this morning. hodiaux vespere, this evening. hodiaux nokte, tonight. hieraux vespere, last evening. hieraux nokte, last night. dimancxon matene, Sunday morning. lundon vespere, Monday evening. mardon nokte, Tuesday night.
94. An accusative of time does not necessarily imply that the act or state mentioned occurs oftener than the instance cited. An adverb from the same root usually gives an idea of frequency or repetition:
Li iros al ilia domo dimancxon, he will go to their house Sunday. Li iras al ilia domo dimancxe, he goes to their house Sundays. Li laboris tagon kaj nokton, he worked a day and a night. Li laboras tage kaj nokte, he works day and night (by day and by night).
THE PREPOSITION "POR".
95. The object or purpose with reference to which an act is performed or a condition exists is expressed by the preposition "por", for. It directs the thought toward its complement, contrasting thus with "pro" (86):
Mi havas libron por vi, I have a book for you. Mi ne havas la tempon por tiel longa promeno, I have not the time for so long a (such a long) walk. Ili faris gxin por via plezuro, they did it for your pleasure.
VOCABULARY
brila = brilliant. merkredo = Wednesday. Dio = God. mezo = middle. dividi = to divide. mondo = world. fari = to make. paci = to be at peace. forgesi = to forget. por = for (95). gxojo = joy. plori = to weep. konstanta = constant. preta = ready. kvieta = quiet, calm. ridi = to laugh. lando = land, country. riprocxi = to reproach.
LA SEZONOJ KAJ LA MONDO.
Antaux tre longa tempo Dio faris la mondon. Li vidis ke la floroj havas belajn kolorojn, ke la arboj estas altaj kaj verdaj. Tiam li vokis la sezonojn kaj diris "Belan mondon mi faris por vi. Cxu vi gardos gxin tage kaj nokte, kaj estos tre zorgaj pri gxi?" La sezonoj respondis "Jes," kaj ridis pro gxojo. Mallongan tempon ili sxajnis esti tre felicxaj inter la arboj kaj floroj de la nova mondo. Sed ne multajn semajnojn ili tiel zorge gardis la mondon. Ili komencis malpaci ("quarrel") inter si, de la mateno gxis la vespero, kaj ofte forgesis la arbojn kaj florojn. Ju pli ili malpacis, des malpli zorge ili gardis la mondon. La malkonstanta printempo ne sxatis la kvietan vintron, kaj ploris pri la malvarma negxo. La varma brila somero diris ke la auxtuno estas tro malbrila. La laca auxtuno volis ripozi, kaj riprocxis la malkonstantan printempon pri cxi ties kota vetero. Pli kaj pli multe ili malpacis, kaj post ne longe ili tute ne restis amikoj. Tiam la auxtuno diris "Mi ne povas pli longan tempon labori kun vi pro la mondo. Niaj gustoj estas tro diversaj. Tial hodiaux matene ni dividos la mondon inter ni." La vintro respondis "Bone! Mi estas preta," kaj la somero kaj la printempo ridis pro gxojo. Tiun tagon ili dividis la mondon inter si. La vintro konstruis sian domon en la plej nordaj kaj sudaj landoj. Tie la frosto, negxo kaj glacio kovras la tutan landon, dum la tuta jaro. La brila energia somero prenis por si la mezon de la mondo. Tial la vetero tie estas plej varma kaj brila. La auxtuno kaj la printempo prenis por si la landojn inter la vintro kaj la somero. Tial la vetero estas nek tro varma nek tro malvarma en cxi tiuj landoj. Tiam la sezonoj rakontis al Dio ke ili tiel dividis la mondon inter si.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Tuesday my brother heard an interesting story, and Wednesday evening after a pleasant walk he related it to me. 2. The story is, that many years ago God made the beautiful new world, and gave it to the seasons. 3. They laughed for joy, and said that they would guard it well. 4. They were ready for pleasure, and also were willing ("volis") to work energetically for-the-sake-of the new young world. 5. Almost a year they were happy, but these seasons were too diverse, and could not long remain friends. 6. The brilliant summer wept and reproached the tired autumn. 7. The autumn preferred to rest, and disliked the muddy weather of the inconstant spring. 8. The quiet winter concealed itself beneath the frost and soft white snow, and wished to sleep. 9. The longer they kept the world among them, the more they quarreled. 10. Soon the autumn made the proposition, "We will divide the world." 11. Immediately that morning the seasons divided the world among themselves. 12. The northern and southern lands now belong to the winter, and the middle of the world belongs to the summer. 13. The spring and autumn took for themselves those lands between the winter and summer.
LESSON XXII.
CLAUSES EXPRESSING DURATION OF TIME.
96. The time during which an act takes place or a condition exists may be expressed not only by an adverb or accusative of time (91), or by use of the preposition "dum", but also by a clause introduced by "dum":
Li venis dum vi forestis, he came while (during-the-time-that) you were away. Dum la sezonoj malpacis, ili forgesis pri la mondo, while the seasons quarreled, they forgot about the world. Ni ridas pro gxojo dum negxas, we laugh for joy while it is snowing.
CLAUSES EXPRESSING ANTICIPATION.
97. A clause expressing an action or condition as preceding or anticipating that of the main verb is introduced by "antaux ol":
Mi foriros antaux ol vi venos, I shall depart before you (will) come. Antaux ol vi riprocxis lin, li ne ploris, before you reproached him, he did not weep. Vi ploris antaux ol vi ridis, you wept before (sooner than) you laughed.
THE INFINITIVE WITH "ANSTATAUX", "POR", "ANTAUX OL".
98. An infinitive may be substantively used with "anstataux" to express substitution, with "por" to express purpose (Cf. Old English "But what went ye out for to see," Matt. xi, 8), and with "antaux ol" to express anticipation. It is usually translated by the English infinitive in "-ing":
Anstataux resti li foriris, instead of staying he went away. Vi malhelpas anstataux helpi min, you hinder instead of helping me. Ni venis por helpi vin, we came to help (in order to help) you. Mi estas preta por iri merkredon, I am ready to go (for going) Wednesday. Li havos tro multe por fari, he will have too much to do. Mi laboros antaux ol ripozi, I shall work before resting. Antaux ol foriri, li dankis min, before going away, he thanked me. Dio faris la mondon antaux ol doni gxin al la sezonoj, God made the world before giving it to the seasons.
[Footnote: "Substantive" is the general name for nouns and pronouns, that is, for words which indicate persons, things, etc., and may be used as subject or object of a verb, complement of a preposition, etc.]
[Footnote: The infinitive may be used with "antaux ol" if its subject is the same as the subject of the main verb. Otherwise the construction explained in (97) must be used.]
THE EXPRESSION OF A PART OF THE WHOLE.
99. After nouns indicating a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, the substantive expressing that indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition "da", of:
Estas skatolo da cxerizoj tie, there is a box of cherries there. Mi trovis grandan sakon da mono, I found a large bag of money. Li havas teleron da viando, he has a plate of meat. Post horoj da gxojo ofte venas horoj da malgxojo, after hours of joy there often come hours of sorrow.
100. The preposition "da" must not be used if a quantity or portion of a "definite" or "limited" whole is expressed. If the word indicating the whole is limited by "la", it is thereby made definite:
Telero de la maturaj pomoj, a plate of the ripe apples. Sako de la bona kafo, a sack of the good coffee.
VOCABULARY
Aleksandro = Alexander. koni = to be acquainted with. barelo = barrel. lauxta = loud. bruo = noise. lito = bed. da = of (99). logxi = to dwell, to reside. demandi = to inquire, to ask. nombro = number (quantity). Diogeno = Diogenes. pura = clean. greka = Greek. suficxa = sufficient, enough. kelkaj = several, some. veki = to wake. kvankam = although. viziti = to visit. cxifono = rag. vesto = garment, clothes.
DIOGENO KAJ ALEKSANDRO GRANDA.
Antaux multaj jaroj sagxa greka viro, Diogeno, logxis en granda urbo. Li opiniis ke ju pli malmulte oni bezonas, des pli felicxa oni estas. Por montri al la mondo ke li ne bezonas multe, kaj ke tial li havas suficxe por esti felicxa, li logxis en granda malnova barelo, anstataux havi domon. Anstataux kusxi nokte sur lito aux almenaux sur mola tapisxo, li ecx dormis en tiu barelo. Oni multe parolis pri Diogeno en la urbo, ne nur cxar li tiel logxis, sed ankaux pro liaj sagxaj diroj. Post kelke da tempo ("some time") la regxo Aleksandro Granda venis tien por viziti la urbon. Dum li estis tie li auxdis pri Diogeno, kaj demandis pri li. "Cxu li logxas en la urbo?" Aleksandro diris. "Kvankam vi ne konas lin, mi opinias ke mi volas vidi tian viron." Oni respondis "Diogeno estas sagxa viro, sed anstataux logxi en domo, li preferas sidi la tutan tempon en malnova barelo. Anstataux porti ("wearing") purajn vestojn, li portas nur malpurajn cxifonojn, cxar li opinias ke ju pli malmulte li bezonas, des pli felicxa li estos." Aleksandro diris "Antaux ol foriri de via lando mi vizitos tiun viron." Antaux ol li foriris de la urbo, Aleksandro iris kun nombro da amikoj por viziti Diogenon, kaj trovis lin en lia barelo. "Cxu tiu viro volas paroli al mi?" demandis Diogeno per lauxta vocxo. Aleksandro Granda respondis "Mi estas la regxo Aleksandro, kaj mi volas koni vin. Mi vidas ke kvankam vi estas sagxa vi estas tre malricxa. Cxu vi ne volas kelkajn novajn vestojn anstataux tiuj malpuraj cxifonoj?" Diogeno tuj diris "Antaux ol vi venis kaj staris inter mi kaj la suno, cxi tiu tre varme brilis sur min. Cxu vi venis por fari bruon kaj por veki min?" Aleksandro ridis kaj diris "Mi vidas ke vi havas suficxe por esti felicxa. Tial mi estas preta por foriri."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Diogenes was a wise man who dwelt in a Greek city, many years ago. 2. In order to show to the inconstant world that one does not need much in order to be happy, he did not have even a house or a bed. 3. He stayed day and night in a big barrel, instead of residing in a house. 4. He preferred to wear old rags, instead of good clean clothes. 5. He said "The less one needs, the happier he will be." 6. While Alexander the Great was visiting that city, people talked to him about Diogenes. 7. They asked "Are you acquainted-with that wise man?" 8. Soon the king went with a number of his friends to that-man's big barrel, in the middle of the city. 9. Diogenes was asleep, but the noise of the loud voices waked him, and he said angrily "You are standing between me and the sun! Will you not go away at once?" 10. Although several of the men laughed, Alexander said "We did not come to quarrel with you. 11. I see that you have enough to be happy, so instead of talking and making a noise we shall leave (go away from) you at once." 12. Before Diogenes could answer, Alexander had quietly walked away.
LESSON XXIII.
ADVERBS EXPRESSING A PART OF THE WHOLE.
101. After adverbs used to indicate a quantity or portion of some indefinite whole, as well as after nouns of such meaning (99), the substantive expressing the indefinite whole is preceded by the preposition "da":
Multe da bruo, much (a quantity of) noise. Tiel malmulte da tempo, so little (such a small quantity of) time. Kelke da pomoj, some (an indefinite number of) apples.
102. Verbs may be modified by an adverb and prepositional phrase containing "da":
Li trinkis malmulte da akvo, he drank little (not much) water. Estas multe da sablo en la dezerto, there is much sand in the desert. Ju pli negxas, des pli multe da negxo kusxas sur la vojoj, the more it snows, the more snow lies on the roads.
[Footnote: A prepositional phrase containing "da", whether following a noun or an adverb, is sometimes called a "partitive" construction.]
103. It is evident from the above examples that an adverb followed by "da" has a somewhat collective sense, indicating a general sum, mass, or portion of the whole, without distinction of particulars. An "adjective" of quantitative meaning, on the other hand, usually indicates consideration of the individuals composing the sum or mass named:
En urbo oni havas multe da bruo, in a city one has much noise. Ni auxdis multajn bruojn, we heard many (different) noises. Tie oni havas multe da plezuro, there one has much pleasure. Oni havas multajn plezurojn tie, people have many (different) pleasures there.
THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
104. The demonstrative adverb of quantity related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiom", that (this) much, that many, that quantity, so much, etc.:--
Mi donis tiom da mono al vi, I gave that much (that amount of) money to you. Mi acxetis tiom da viando, I bought that much meat. Tiom de la libroj mi legis, that many of the books I read.
RESULT CLAUSES.
105. A clause of result (also called a consecutive clause) expresses an action or condition as due to, or resulting from, something indicated in the main sentence, as "he is so strong that he can do it," "I had so much pleasure that I laughed heartily." In Esperanto a result clause is introduced by "ke", preceded (directly or in the main sentence) by an adverb or adjective of manner, degree, or quantity:
Diogeno estis tiel sagxa greka viro ke Aleksandro lauxdis lin, Diogenes was such a wise Greek man that Alexander praised him. Mi havis tiom da plezuro ke mi tre ridis, I had so much pleasure that I laughed very much. Gxi estas tia vilagxo ke mi sxatas logxi tie, it is such (that sort of) a village that I like to live there.
VOCABULARY
acxeti = to buy. kontuzo = bruise. asparago = asparagus. lakto = milk. brasiko = cabbage. legomo = vegetable. butiko = store, shop. ovo = egg. frago = strawberry. pizo = pea. funto = pound. sabato = Saturday. glaso = glass, tumbler. tiom = that much (104). jxauxdo = Thursday. vendredo = Friday. kremo = cream. vilagxo = village.
EN LA BUTIKO.
Hodiaux matene mi iris kun la patrino al la plej granda butiko en nia vilagxo. Tie sxi acxetis tiom da legomoj kaj fruktoj ke ni tute ne povis porti ilin. Tial juna knabo venis kun ni, kaj portis kelke da ili por ni. La patrino ne acxetis tiel multe je vendredo, sed hodiaux estas sabato, kaj sxi volis acxeti legomojn por dimancxo, cxar dimancxe oni ne povas iri en la butikojn. Tial sabate oni kutime acxetas suficxe por la mangxoj de sabato kaj dimancxo. Meze de la butiko staras multe da bareloj. En cxi tiuj oni trovas grandan nombron da fresxaj puraj legomoj. La patrino acxetis tiel multe da asparago kaj novaj pizoj, kaj tiel grandan sakon da terpomoj, ke la tablo restis preskaux nuda. Mi vidis brasikon tie, sed tiun legomon mi malsxatas, kvankam oni diras ke gxi estas tre bona legomo. Antaux ol foriri de la butiko la patrino acxetis kelke da ovoj, kaj rigardis la fruktojn en bareloj apud la pordo. Ili sxajnis tiel bonaj ke sxi acxetis kelkajn maturajn pomojn kaj skatolon da fragoj. Dum oni donis al sxi la fruktojn, mi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero. Tiam ni estis pretaj por foriri el la butiko. Sur la vojo ni auxdis tiel grandan bruon ke mi lasis la patrinon kaj kuris trans la straton. Mi trovis tie infanon,la filon de nia najbaro. Li faris la bruon, cxar li falis de la arbo antaux sia domo, kaj tre lauxte ploris. Li diris al mi ke li havas multajn kontuzojn sur la kapo. Cxar mi bone konas la infanon, mi demandis "Cxu vi volas grandan rugxan pomon? Mi havas tian pomon por vi." Li tuj kaptis la pomon, kaj mi foriris. Tiam la patrino kaj mi iris al la domo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. I shall go to the village today with my younger sister. 2. We wish to buy some eggs, vegetables and fruit for Mother. 3. Mother prefers to remain in the house, because it is raining. 4. It rained on Thursday and Friday, but today it is not raining very much. 5. The air is warm and pleasant, and we shall carry umbrellas with us. 6. We shall buy some new peas, a box of strawberries and several pounds of sugar. 7. Thus we shall have enough for the meals of Saturday and Sunday. 8. I wonder whether we shall see such asparagus and such cabbage on the tables or in the barrels. 9. Although I do not often eat such vegetables, Father and Mother are very fond of ("multe sxatas") both cabbage and asparagus. 10. We shall also buy enough milk for several glasses of milk, and we shall need much cream for the strawberries. 11. It seems that we shall buy such a number of vegetables that we cannot carry them. 12. While we were standing near the door, ready to go toward the village (46), we heard a loud voice. 13. A child was standing in the street, and crying. 14. He wished to go with his mother to visit some friends. 15. I suppose that a noise on the street waked him, and he did not wish to remain in his bed.
LESSON XXIV.
THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
106. The interrogative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "kiu", who, which. Since the use of this pronoun indicates a question, the sentence containing it does not need the interrogative adverb "cxu" (30):
Kiu vokas vin? Who calls you? Kiun vi vokas? Whom do you call? Kiuj el vi vokis nin? Which (ones) of you called us? Kiujn li helpis? Whom (which ones) did he help? Kiun tagon vi venos? What day will you come? Kiujn legomojn vi preferas? What vegetables do you prefer? Mi miras kiun libron vi acxetis? I wonder which book you bought?
107. The interrogative pronoun "kiu" has a possessive or genitive form "kies", whose:
En kies domo vi logxas? In whose house do you reside? Kies amikojn vi vizitis? Whose friends did you visit?
THE PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
108. A participle is a "verbal adjective", as in "a "crying" child." It agrees like other adjectives with the word modified (19, 24). The participle from a transitive verb (22) may take a direct object, and a participle expressing motion may be followed by an accusative indicating direction of motion (46). The present active participle, expressing what the word modified "is doing", ends in "-anta," as "vidanta", seeing, "iranta", going:
La ploranta infano volas dormi. The crying child wishes to sleep. Mi vidas la falantajn foliojn, I see the falling leaves. Kiu estas la virino acxetanta ovojn? Who is the woman buying eggs? Mi parolis al la viroj irantaj vilagxon. I talked to the men (who were) going toward the village.
COMPOUND TENSES.
109. A participle may be used predicatively with a form of "esti", as "Mi estas demandanta", I am asking, "La viro estas acxetanta", the man is buying. Such combinations are called "compound tenses", in contrast to the "simple" or "aoristic" tenses.
[Footnote: An aoristic tense consists of but one word (ending in "-as", "-os", etc.) and expresses an act or state as a whole, without specifying whether it is finished, still in progress, or yet begun.]
Compound tenses occur less often in Esperanto than in English, and an aoristic Esperanto tense may often be translated by an English compound tense, as "La birdoj flugas", the birds are flying. When used to form a compound tense, the verb "esti" is called the "auxiliary verb". No other verb is ever used as an auxiliary (a simpler method than in English, which uses "be", "have", "do", "will", "shall", "would", etc.).
THE PROGRESSIVE PRESENT TENSE.
110. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the present tense of "esti" is called the "progressive present tense". It differs from the aoristic present by expressing an action as definitely in progress, or a condition as continuously existing, at the moment of speaking. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:
mi estas vidanta, I am seeing. vi estas vidanta, you are seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estas vidanta, he (she, it) is seeing. ni estas vidantaj, we are seeing. vi estas vidantaj, you (plural) are seeing. ili estas vidantaj, they are seeing.
THE SUFFIX "-EJ-".
111. Words expressing the place where the action indicated by the root occurs, or where the object indicated by the root may be found, are formed by inserting the suffix "-ej-" before the noun-ending:
cxevalejo, stable (from "cxevalo", horse). dormejo, dormitory (from "dormi", to sleep). herbejo, meadow (from "herbo", grass). logxejo, lodging-place, dwelling (from "logxi", to dwell, to lodge).
[Footnote: Similar formations are made in English with the suffix "-y", as "bakery", "bindery", "grocery", etc. This suffix is equivalent to the "-ei" in German "Baeckerei", bakery, "Druckerei", printing-office, etc., and to the "-ie" in French "patisserie", pastry-shop, "imprimerie", printing-shop, etc.]
VOCABULARY
alia = other, another. kuiri = to cook. baki = to bake. kurteno = curtain. dika = thick. kutimo = custom. facila = easy. leciono = lesson. familio = family. lerni = to learn. kanapo = sofa. pano = bread. kies = whose (107). persono = person. kiu = who (106). salono = parlor.
EN NIA DOMO.
Oni ofte miras kies domo en nia vilagxo estas plej bela, kaj kiu domo estas la plej agrabla logxejo. Nia domo ne estas tre granda, sed gxi estas nova kaj ni multe sxatas gxin. Gxia salono estas granda, kun belaj puraj kurtenoj kovrantaj la fenestrojn, kaj mola dika tapisxo kovranta la plankon. Cxi tie estas kelkaj segxoj, malgranda tablo, kaj longa kanapo. Personoj vizitantaj nin kutime sidas en cxi tiu cxambro, kaj dum ni estas sidantaj tie ni nur parolas, anstataux skribi aux legi. Alia cxambro en la domo estas tre luma kaj agrabla, sed malpli granda. Cxi tie staras tablo suficxe granda por nia tuta familio, kaj en tiu cxambro oni mangxas. Ofte ni restas tie longan tempon post la mangxo, cxar la patro rakontas interesajn rakontojn al ni, kaj ni multe ridas, kaj demandas pri tiuj rakontoj, kaj tiel bone amuzas nin ke mi preskaux forgesas pri miaj lecionoj. Tamen mi havas multe da lecionoj por lerni, kaj ili tute ne estas facilaj. Je tre frua horo matene mi iras al la lernejo, kun miaj fratoj kaj fratinoj. Nur sabate kaj dimancxe ni ne iras tien. La lernejo estas malnova kaj malgranda, sed oni estas nun konstruanta novan pli grandan lernejon apud nia domo. Dum la infanoj estas lernantaj siajn lecionojn tie, la patrino kutime iras al la bakejon, por acxeti suficxe da pano, por la mangxoj de la tago. Ofte sxi iras ankaux al aliaj butikoj. Jxauxdon sxi acxetis kelke da novaj pizoj, kaj da asparago. Vendredon sxi acxetis kelkajn funtojn da sukero, skatolon da fragoj, kaj suficxe da kremo kaj lakto. Hodiaux sxi estas acxetanta brasikon kaj sakon da terpomoj. Sxi volas kuiri tre bonan mangxon, tamen sxi havas tro multe por fari en la kuirejo, cxar sxi ne havas servistinon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Who is the woman sitting on the sofa in the parlor? 2. I can not easily see her, but I hear her voice. 3. I wonder whose voice that is. 4. However, I think that it is the voice of a friend of Mother's. 5. Now I can see her, although she does not see me. 6. I am well acquainted with her. 7. She is a friend of our whole family, and is visiting a neighbor of ours ("najbaron nian") in this city. 8. My sister is sitting on the sofa in another room, and learning her lessons. 9. Soon she will go to school. 10. Whose book is she reading? 11. That thick book is mine, but the other books on the table near her are hers. 12. She prefers to sit in the sewing-room (111) to read or write (98), because the curtains in front of the windows are not too thick, and so (78) that room is very light and pleasant. 13. She also likes to look at the falling snow, and the men and women walking on the muddy streets. 14. On account of the cold weather, people are wearing thick clothes. 15. The men and boys are keeping their hands in their pockets while they walk. 16. The girls walking toward the school are friends of my sister's. 17. In that school they learn to cook. Soon they will be able to bake bread, and even to cook a whole meal. 18. I think such a custom is very good. 19. Many persons can not cook well enough ("suficxe bone").
LESSON XXV.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE.
112. The interrogative adjective related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kia", what kind of, what sort of:
Kiajn vestojn li portis? What sort of clothes did he wear? Kian panon vi preferas? What kind of bread do you prefer? Mi miras kia persono li estas. I wonder what sort of a person he is. Kia vetero estas? What sort of weather is it? Kia plezuro! What a pleasure!
THE IMPERFECT TENSE.
113. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in progress in past time, but not perfected, and is called the "imperfect tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidanta. I was seeing. vi estis vidanta. you were seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estis vidanta. he (she, it) was seeing. ni estis vidantaj. we were seeing. vi estis vidantaj. you were seeing. ili estis vidantaj. they were seeing.
THE PROGRESSIVE FUTURE TENSE.
114. The compound tense formed by using the present active participle with the future tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as in progress--or a condition as existing continuously--at a future time, and is called the "progressive future" tense. The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidanta. I shall be seeing. vi estos vidanta. you will be seeing. li (sxi, gxi) estos vidanta. he (she, it) will be seeing. ni estos vidantaj. we shall be seeing. vi estos vidantaj. you will be seeing. ili estos vidantaj. they will be seeing.
SALUTATIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.
exclamation may be regarded as the direct object of a verb which is not expressed; these words are put in the accusative
Bonan matenon! Good morning! (I wish you "good morning.") Bonan nokton! Good night! (I wish you a "good night.") Multajn salutojn al via patro! (I send) many greetings to your father! Dankon! Thanks! (I give to you "thanks.") Cxielon! Heavens! (I invoke the "heavens.")
WORD FORMATION.
116. The majority of roots have such a meaning that at least two kinds of words, and often three or four, may be formed from them by use of the general endings for verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs. (Each root will hereafter be quoted but once in the vocabularies, with a hyphen separating it from the ending with which it appears first in the reading lesson, or with which it is most frequently used.) Following are examples of word formation from roots already familiar:
VERB. NOUN. ADJECTIVE. ADVERB.
brili brilo brila brile to shine shine, brilliance shining, brilliant brilliantly
flori floro flora flore to bloom flower, blossom floral florally
gxoji gxojo gxoja gxoje to rejoice joy, gladness joyful, glad gladly
kontuzi kontuzo to bruise bruise, contusion
tuto tuta tute whole entire, whole, all entirely
"KONI" AND "SCII".
117. The verb "koni", which means "to know" in the sense of "to be acquainted with" is used in speaking of persons, languages, places, etc. "Koni" always has a direct object. It is never followed by "ke", "cxu", "kiu", or any other interrogative word. "Scii" means "to know" in the sense of "to be aware," "to have knowledge." It is not used in speaking of persons.
[Footnote: "Koni" is equivalent to German "kennen", French "connaitre", Spanish "conocer", while "scii" is equivalent to German "wissen", French "savoir", Spanish "saber".]
Cxu vi konas tiun personon? Do you know that person? Mi scias ke li estas nia najbaro. I know that he is our neighbor. Mi bone konas Bostonon. I am well acquainted with Boston. Mi ne scias cxu li konas ilin. I do not know whether he knows them.
VOCABULARY
av-o = grandfather. kia = what kind of (112). buked-o = bouquet. lingv-o = language. ekzamen-o = examination. nep-o = grandson. ferm-i = to close. nu! Well! frap-i = to strike, to knock. paper-o = paper. geometri-o = geometry. salut-i = to greet. german-a = German. sci-i = to know (117). hejm-o = home. stud-i = to study.
LA NEPO VIZITAS LA AVINON.
Hieraux matene mi vizitis la avinon. Sxia hejmo estas apud la granda nova bakejo. Mi vidis sxin tra la fenestro, cxar la kurtenoj kovrantaj gxin estas tre maldikaj. Sxi estis sidanta sur la kanapo, kaj skribanta per plumo sur granda papero. Antaux ol frapi sur la pordo mi vokis sxin kaj diris "Bonan matenon, kara avino!" Tuj sxi demandis "Kiu estas tie? Kies vocxon mi auxdas?" Mi respondis "Estas via nepo. Cxu vi ne konas mian vocxon?" Antaux ol sxi povis veni al la pordo mi estis malfermanta gxin. Mi iris en la salonon kaj donis al la avino bukedon da floroj. "La patrino donas cxi tiujn al vi, kun siaj plej bonaj salutoj," mi diris. La avino respondis "Nu, kia plezuro! Multan dankon al sxi pro la bela bukedo, kaj ankaux al vi, cxar vi portis gxin cxi tien por mi!" Dum sxi estis metanta la florojn en glason da akvo la avino diris "Nu, kiajn lecionojn vi havis hodiaux en la lernejo?" Mi respondis ke mi bone konis la lecionojn, cxar mi zorge studis ilin. "Ni estas lernantaj la germanan lingvon," mi diris, "kaj ju pli longe ni studas gxin, des pli multe mi gxin sxatas, kvankam gxi estas tre malfacila." Mi rakontis ankaux pri la lecionoj de geometrio, kaj aliaj lecionoj, sed diris ke la ekzamenoj estos baldaux komencantaj. "Je tiu tempo," mi diris, "mi estos skribanta la respondojn al la ekzamenoj, preskaux la tutan semajnon." La avino demandis kun intereso "Cxu la demandoj de la ekzamenoj estos malfacilaj?" Mi respondis "Mi ne scias, sed mi timas ke ni estos tre lacaj post tiom da laboro." Post kelke da aliaj demandoj kaj respondoj, mi opiniis ke estas la horo por foriri. Dum mi estis foriranta, la avino diris "Multajn salutojn al la tuta familio!" Mi dankis sxin, diris "Bonan tagon!" kaj tiam foriris.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. What sort of noise do I hear outside the door? 2. Are some of my friends knocking? 3. We were talking yesterday about the examinations in our school, and these boys came home to study with me. 4. I shall go to the door to open it and to greet my friends. 5. Good morning! Did you come to study geometry, or the German language? 6. Which of these is usually more difficult, and in which will the examination be the longer? 7. Well, we brought our German books, because we prefer to study these. 8. We wish to know this language thoroughly. 9. We shall go into the writing-room (111), for (83) some friends of my grandmother are in the parlor. 10. We can hear their voices here, and we can not study very well while they are talking. 11. They were carrying many flowers, and gave a beautiful bouquet to my grandmother. 12. She said "Many thanks for (86) the sweet violets! In whose garden did they bloom?" 13. Her friend's granddaughter is a friend of my youngest sister. 14. Well, shall we begin to study? Have you enough paper, and have you a good pen? 15. I shall close this other door, because they are baking bread in the kitchen, and cooking meat. 16. We shall be hearing the voices of so many persons that I know that we can not study.
LESSON XXVI.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.
118. The interrogative adverb of place, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kie", where, in (at) what place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "kie", the ending "-n" is added, forming "kien", whither (where):
Kie li estis kaj kien oni forpelis lin? Where was he and whither did they drive him (away)? Li miros kie lia nepo estas. He will wonder where his grandson is. Mi ne scias kien li kuris. I do not know where (whither) he ran.
THE PAST ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
119. The past active participle, (for the characteristics of a participle see 108) expressing what the word modified "did" or "has done", ends in "-inta", as "vidinta", having seen, "irinta", gone, having gone:
La falintaj folioj estas brunaj. The fallen leaves are brown. Kiu estas la viro salutinta nin? Who is the man having greeted (who greeted) us? Oni forgesas la foririntajn personojn. One forgets the departed persons (the persons who have gone away).
ADVERB DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.
120. Adverbs may be derived from prepositions whose sense permits, by use of the adverb ending "-e":
Antauxe li studis la geometrion, previously he studied geometry. Poste li studis la germanan, afterwards he studied German. Li marsxis antauxe, ne malantauxe, he walked in front, not behind. Dume la viroj staris cxirkauxe, meanwhile the men stood roundabout. Ili venis kune kaj sidis apude, they came together and sat near by.
ADVERBS EXPRESSING DIRECTION OF MOTION.
121. An adverb expressing place or direction is given the ending "-n" when used with a verb expressing motion toward that place or direction (69, 118, etc.):
Cxu li rajdis norden aux suden? Did he ride north or south(ward)? Ni kuris antauxen, ne malantauxen, we ran forward, not back. La bukedo falis eksteren kaj suben, the bouquet fell out and underneath. Li estis marsxanta hejmen, he was walking home (homeward).
[Footnote: The adverb may precede the verb and be united with it by simple juxtaposition, if the resulting word is not too long: "Li hejmeniris", he went home (he "home-went"). "Ni antauxeniros", we shall advance (go forward). "La bukedo subenfalis", the bouquet fell underneath.]
THE SUFFIX "-EG-".
122. The suffix "-eg-" may be added to a root to augment or intensify its meaning, thus forming an "augmentative" of the root:
barelego, hogshead (from "barelo", barrel). bonega, excellent (from "bona", good). malbonege, wickedly, wretchedly (from "malbone", badly, poorly). domego, mansion (from "domo", house). ploregi, to sob, to wail (from "plori", to weep). treege, exceedingly (from "tre", very).
VOCABULARY
aer-o = air. pez-a = heavy. danc-i = to dance. polv-o = dust. fulm-o = lightning. sekv-i = to follow. gut-o = drop (of water, etc.). sercx-i = to hunt for, to search. kie = where (118). silent-a = still, silent. okaz-i = to happen, to occur. subit-a = sudden. okul-o = eye. tegment-o = roof. pec-o = piece. tondr-o = thunder.
LA PLUVEGO.
Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la rivero.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home.
LESSON XXVII.
THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB
123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time?
Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me? Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come). Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall?
THE PERFECT TENSE.
124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows:
mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen). vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen). li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen). ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen). vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen). ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen).
THE PREPOSITION "CXE".
125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or land of, among, with, etc.:
Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate. Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's. Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school. Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends. Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow.
THE SUFFIX "-AR-".
126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., "are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" are called collectives:
arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree). cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse). kamparo, country (from kampo, field). libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book). amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).
"TEMPO" AND "FOJO".
127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series:
Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time. Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon, he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time. Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly. Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo, many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning.
THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.
128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames and names of places which are small or not well known are more often quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" ("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc.
VOCABULARY
arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl. Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight. cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice. fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send. foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland. kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier. pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed. pied-o = foot. supr-e = above. plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer.
ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.
Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn).
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. 11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away.
LESSON XXVIII.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.
129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what reason:
Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up? Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it.
THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.
130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.
[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions "por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).]
Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si":
Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure. Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant. Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon? Is it easy to look at the ceiling? Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself. Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly.
PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.
131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the present tense (instead of by the past as in English):
Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday. De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon, since March I have been (I am) studying that language. Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago, they have been (they are) friends from that day. Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj, we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago.
[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here two years, etc.]
THE SUFFIX "-UL-".
132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or quality in the root:
junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young). belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful). maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old). sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise). malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor).
[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", "garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, "fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.]
"LOGXI" AND "VIVI".
133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be alive":
Li logxas apude, he lives near by. Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time. Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe, to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly.
VOCABULARY
afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129). afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile. balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash. barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles. batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder. brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek. bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda. har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133).
PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.
Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas "Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the spectacles.
LESSON XXIX.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.
134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what degree:
Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air? Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is! Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened. Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it?
THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.
135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:
mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen). vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen). li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen). ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen). vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen). ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).
CARDINAL NUMERALS.
136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:
unu = one. sep = seven. du = two. ok = eight. tri = three. naux = nine. kvar = four. dek = ten. kvin = five. dek unu = eleven. ses = six. dek du = twelve.
137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to "aliaj", others:
Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran. Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others.
138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a number "out of" some larger number or quantity:
Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came. Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine. El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one.
[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne tiun sur la tablo."]
THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.
139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.:
Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles. La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn, the park is three miles wide and four miles long. La tablo pezas dek du funtojn, the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds.
NIA FAMILIO.
Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn.
[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.]
Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca."
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust.
LESSON XXX.
THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.
140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many:
Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest? Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis? How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy? Ni miras kiom da mono li havos, we wonder how much money he will have. Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?
MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.
141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial:
Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house. Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow. Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came. Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him. Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise. Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.
FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.
142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively.
Tens. --------------------------------------------- dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty. tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy. kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty. kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety.
Hundreds. Thousands. ---------------------------- ------------------------- ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand. kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand. sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc.
143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. (Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136):
dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five. dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight. dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc.
144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest number and descend regularly, as in English:
cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five. kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven. sescent du, six hundred and two. mil okdek, one thousand and eighty. mil naucent dek du, one thousand nine hundred and twelve (nineteen hundred and twelve).
THE SUFFIX "-AN-".
145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc.
bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house. kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager.
[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", "Mohammed-an", etc.]
VOCABULARY
aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember. cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142). erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute. grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive. kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second. kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year.
LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.
Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. 4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it easily, and seldom make mistakes.
LESSON XXXI.
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", which, who.
[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by "kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.]
The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause):
La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj, the youths who came are amiable. La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj, the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine. Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos, I calculated the grade (which) he will receive. Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas, I remember that matter about which you speak.
147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent:
Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis, he is the man whose book you found. Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via, I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.
THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:
mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen). vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen). li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta, he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen). ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen). vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen). ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen).
ORDINAL NUMERALS.
149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached:
unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth. dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina : tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth. oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara : dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth. dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa : six thousand and seventh.
[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", "2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", "1912an", etc.]
VOCABULARY
angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary. dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot. dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting). gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share. kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try. last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate. latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow. mar-o = sea. sam-a = same.
ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.
Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language.
LESSON XXXII.
"KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.
150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be translated "as", or "which":
Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas, I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish. Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj, such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable. Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn, he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars. Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi, I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have).
"KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of place for its antecedent.
[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. "cxu").]
"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien":
Mi iros tien, kie vi estas, I shall go there where you are. Mi estis tie, kien vi iros, I was there (at that place) where you will go. Mi iros tien, kien vi iris, I shall go to that place to which you went (I shall go where you went). Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas, I found him in the city where he lives. Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas? Are you coming here where we are?
THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.
152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to see, "ironta", about to go:
La forironta viro vokis sian serviston, the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man) called his servant. La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla, the woman about to greet you is very affable. La venonta monato estas marto, the coming month is March. La venontan semajnon mi foriros, the coming (next) week I shall depart.
THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.
153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows:
Present Periphrastic Future.
mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj, I am about to (going we are about to (going to) see. to) see.
Past Periphrastic Future.
mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj, I was about to (going we were about to (going to) see. to) see.
Future Periphrastic Future.
mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj, I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going to) see. to) see.
THE SUFFIX "-IND-".
154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, merit, etc.:
dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable. lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably. mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating.
VOCABULARY
ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell. atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest. bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh! cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry. defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel. difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake. edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood. fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect.
[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."]
ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.
Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al li.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was.
LESSON XXXIII.
"KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he came"):
Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis, I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came). Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin, he defended himself then, when he was attacked. Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos, I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come). Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori, after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry.
"KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as":
Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin, I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself. Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li, you are not so cruel as he (is). Ili batis lin same kiel vi, they beat him in the same way as you (did). Ili batis lin same kiel vin, they beat him the same as (they did) you. Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa, as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed). Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe, he spoke as softly as before. Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela, she is as good as she is fair.
NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.
157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used:
dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand. dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit. deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette. cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio.
[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: "dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.]
158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "-e":
unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly. due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly. kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly.
WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.
159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), with sometimes a special suffix also:
anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of. anstatauxulo = a substitute. antauxa = previous, preceding. apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent. cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle. cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference. kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary. kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent. kunulo = comrade, companion. superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above. superege = surpassingly, exceedingly.
VOCABULARY
adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin. akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding. elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair. fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang. gant-o = glove. prez-o = price. gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet. invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe. jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use.
[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.]
LA INVITO.
Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three months ago.
LESSON XXXIV.
PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.
160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs may be formed from these (116):
alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse. aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict. antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate. cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble. cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe. dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support. demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on. depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate. enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross.
[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out (transitive).]
THE SUFFIX "-EBL-".
161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc.
eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable. legebla = legible. videbla = visible. mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent.
[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of love" (aminda), etc.]
EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.
162. The adverb "plej", "most" (74), modified by "kiel eble" (as possible), is used to express the highest degree possible:
Gxi estas kiel eble plej bona, it is the best possible. Ni estos kiel eble plej sagxaj, we shall be as wise as possible. Li uzis kiel eble plej malmulte, he used the least possible. Mi skribis kiel eble plej legeble, I wrote as legibly as possible.
TITLES AND TERMS OF ADDRESS.
163. The words "sinjoro," gentleman, "sinjorino," lady, "frauxlino," miss, are used like English "Mr., Mrs., Miss," before proper names, and are also used as terms of address, without being followed by the name: "Adiaux, Sinjoro. Adiaux, Sinjorino," Goodbye (Sir). Goodbye, Madam.
Frauxlino B----, cxu vi konas tiun sinjoron kun Sinjorino C----? Miss B----, do you know that gentleman with Mrs. C----? Mi ne konas tiun frauxlinon, I do not know that young lady. Kien vi volas iri, Frauxlino? Where do you wish to go (Miss)? Sinjoro A---- estas tre afabla, Mr. A---- is very amiable.
[Footnote: Cf. English "Doctor, Professor, Madam," as terms of address, and also German "Mein Herr, gnaedige Frau, gnaediges Fraeulein," French "Monsieur, Mademoiselle," Spanish, "Senor, Senora," Italian "Signore," etc.]
VOCABULARY
atent-a = attentive. onkl-o = uncle. auxskult-i = to listen. san-a = in good health. babil-i = to chatter. sent-i = to feel. doktor-o = doctor. sinjor-o = gentleman. frauxl-o = bachelor. sxtup-o = step (of stairs). gaj-a = merry, gay. tas-o = cup. grup-o = group. vojagx-o = voyage, journey.
CXE LA FESTO.
Hieraux vespere mi iris al la hejmo de mia kuzo, kiu estis invitinta min al malgranda festo cxe li. Cxar mi deziris alveni kiel eble plej frue, mi foriris de mia logxejo kiel eble plej baldaux, malgraux la negxa vetero. Mi estis surmetinta paron da dikaj gantoj, kaj mi portis dikajn sxuojn. Mi ankaux havis mian ombrelon, kvankam pro la vento mi ne povis uzi tiun. Tuj kiam mi supreniris la sxtuparon cxe la hejmo de la kuzo, li auxdis min, kaj venis por malfermi la pordon kaj akcepti min. "Bonan vesperon, kia estas via sano?" li diris. Mi respondis "Mi sanas bonege, dankon," kaj eniris la domon kun li. Ni supren iris per granda sxtuparo al cxambro kie mi lasis la cxapelon, gantojn kaj ombrelon, tiam ni malsupren venis kaj eniris la salonon. Mi salutis la onklinon, kiu afable parolis al mi, kaj ankaux la du kuzinojn. Unu kuzino estis jxus priskribonta interesan libron, kiun sxi antaux ne longe tralegis, kiam la aliaj gastoj komencis alveni. Sinjoro B---- cxeestis, kaj Doktoro C----, kun sia filino Frauxlino Mario, kaj multe da aliaj sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj. La gastoj sidis aux staris en malgrandaj grupoj, kaj interparolis kun videbla plezuro. Unu rakontis pri vojagxo, kaj tiam oni komencis priparoli la prezojn de aferoj en aliaj landoj. Mi atente auxskultis kelkajn minutojn, kaj tiam foriris al alia grupo, kie oni gaje babilis pri estontaj ("future") promenoj kaj festoj. Post unu aux du horoj, la servistinoj alportis al ni bonan malgrandan mangxon, kune kun tasoj da bonega kafo. Fine, je malfrua horo ni gxentile dankis la familion de mia kuzo, kaj diris adiaux. Tiam ni foriris hejmen, kun sentoj da granda plezuro pro la agrabla festo.
SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
1. There are dozens of edible fruits, but the fruits of hundreds of trees are not at all ("tute ne estas") edible. 2. The transparent cup and plate upon the table are very breakable. 3. I predict that you will break them as soon as you seize them. 4. That letter is worth reading. 5. But it is difficult to read it, for it is not very legible. 6. It is from my uncle, who wishes to arrive at-our-house as early as possible. 7. He is still in the city, but soon he will be here, and will go up the steps ("sxtuparon") of our porch and knock on the door. 8. There are very few persons who contradict his opinions. 9. His opinions, however, are worthy of attention (154) and usually I listen courteously while he is talking. 10. Now, however, I prefer to listen to the group of ladies in the adjacent room. 11. They are chattering gaily, and listening to the young lady who is about to sing. 12. Madam, do you feel the wind? I notice that it is blowing the curtains which hang before that window. 13. I will close the window, because I am not very well ("sana") today. 14. Is that gentleman across the room a bachelor? 15. Yes. He is describing a voyage and the people whom he met.
LESSON XXXV.
"KIOM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.
164. The interrogative adverb "kiom" (140) is used as a relative adverb of quantity, with "tiom" or some equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. In this use it is commonly translated "as":
La taso enhavis tiom da kafo, kiom mi povis trinki, the cup contained as much coffee as I could drink. Mi havos tiom da tempo, kiom mi bezonos, I shall have as much time as I shall need. Li sendis tiom, kiom vi volis, he sent as much as you wished.
THE PRESENT PASSIVE PARTICIPLE.
165. The present passive participle (for the present active participle see 108), expressing that which is "undergone by" the person or thing indicated by the word modified, ends in "-ata", as "vidata", being seen:
[Footnote: The verb "iri", to go, used to illustrate the active participles (108, 119, 152), cannot be used to illustrate a passive participle, since passive participles can be made from transitive verbs (22) only.]
La lauxdata knabo estas felicxa, the boy being praised is happy. Mi sercxos la deziratan libron, I shall look for the desired book. La vestoj farataj por vi estas belaj, the clothes being made for you are beautiful.
FRACTIONS.
166. Fractions are formed from the cardinals by the use of the suffix "-on-" followed by the ending "-o". Adjectives and adverbs may be derived from these by use of the endings "-a" or "-e":
La duono de ses estas tri, the half of six is three. Li estis nur duone atenta, he was only half attentive. La triona parto de ses estas du, the third part of six is two. Dek unu dekduonoj, eleven twelfths. Mi dudekone finis la laboron, I one-twentieth finished the work.
DESCRIPTIVE COMPOUNDS.
167. A compound word whose first element modifies the second in an adjectival or adverbial relation is called a "descriptive compound". The final "-a" or "-e" of the first element may be omitted, unless the resulting combination would be ambiguous or harsh-sounding.
a. When the first element is adverbial (an adverb or preposition), the second element may be either an adverb or adjective:
multekosta, expensive. duonkolere, half angrily. nevidebla, invisible. nevole, involuntarily. rugxflava (rugxeflava), reddish yellow. survoje, on the way, en route. antauxhieraux, day before yesterday. postmorgaux, day after tomorrow.
b. An adjective may be used for the first element, if the second is an adverb or adjective "derived from a noun-root":
samtempa, contemporaneous. unufoje, once, one time. trifoje, thrice, three times. unutaga, one day's, of one day. unuataga, the first day's. frutempe, at an early time.