Chapter 2

=Transition.=--Many discussions and criticisms of Benavente indicate that he is known principally as a composer of plays that deal with society, written objectively to depict life as it is, without any betrayal of the author's opinions. As we pass beyond the year 1901, we realize that a change is taking place. This does not mean that pictures of life in the upper classes are to constitute an unimportant part of Benavente's _teatro_. As has been noted, they are especially congenial to his artistic sense. However, the later periods of his career give evidence of ever-expanding powers and of increasing versatility. The early type of play does not disappear, but it becomes only one of a number of different _genres_, all of which are connected by their author's keenness of observation, fidelity to life, genius for irony and universal human interest.

=1901-1904.=--No convincing bond of union is found in the eighteen plays written in the first three years of the present century. Four translations and adaptations are encountered. The society play is continued in _El automóvil_ and _El hombrecito_, although the latter shows elements of the problem drama. With scarcely any change of method the scene of action is shifted from Spanish to royal and international society in _La noche del sábado_ and _La princesa Bebé_. _El primo Román_, _Al natural_, and _La casa de la dicha_, although differing widely in details, evidence a broader view of human nature. Free rein is given to the spirit of fun in _El tren de los maridos_ and _No fumadores_. Serious steps toward a thesis drama are evident in _Alma triunfante_ and _Por qué se ama_. But the two most striking plays of the period are _La gobernadora_ and _El dragón de fuego_.

_=La gobernadora.=_--In this play the spectator or reader is introduced to prominent political characters in a provincial town. The successive incidents show how influence may be brought to bear upon an administrative official from a variety of undesirable sources. The governor's wife, a shrewd, capable woman, persuades her husband to use his authority against his better judgment. The moneyed classes, devoted to reaction, use intrigues of all kinds to force him to forbid the performance of a play that extols liberal tendencies. The working classes attempt a riot in order to compel him not to interfere with the spectacle. The details of the plot need not be given. One thing, however, deserves to be mentioned--the brilliancy of the scenes in which a great number of characters are shown on the stage at the same time. One scene brings before our eyes a crowd collected in a café, and another shows us the spectators at a bull-fight. Benavente portrays faithfully and vividly the gayety inherent in the outdoor life of the races of Southern Europe. He reminds us of the splendid pictures that mark some of the best plays of Goldoni.[i.8]

=Political Ideas.=--Benavente has more than once called himself a reactionary in politics. Unfortunately we do not know just what he means by reaction. He speaks of the folly of endeavoring to correct abuses by law, but just when he appears to be on the point of committing himself, a satirical or ironical remark leaves us in doubt as to his real convictions. In recent utterances he has demonstrated greater willingness to discuss current problems from a severely logical point of view. In many respects he is a modern thinker; projects for the gradual improvement of Spanish and world-wide ills meet with his unqualified approval. Unfortunately, or perhaps fortunately, he is not always consistent in his desire to see things accomplished without governmental interference; for instance, he favors state control of the theater.

_=El dragón de fuego.=_--No better example could be given of the difficulty of determining Benavente's political notions than _El dragón de fuego_. It is at the same time his most serious, most mysterious, and, in the opinion of some critics, his most pessimistic work. The plot is as follows: A certain civilized country called Sirlandia has gained control over the uncivilized people of Nirván, thereby outdistancing the rival powers, Franconia and Suavia (the names may be applied to Western European nations as each reader sees fit). The emissaries of civilization are a general, a merchant, and a clergyman, who symbolize arms, money, and spirituality. The Europeans uphold upon the throne a puppet-king, Dani-Sar, who is the protagonist of the play and whose character is in every respect admirable. His weakness and his strength are those of a man removed from western civilization. Although in love with a maiden, Sita, he surrenders her to his brother Duraní, whom he thinks she loves. Foreigners and natives are alike dear to him, but he falls victim to the selfish and cruel policy of civilization. When the Sirlandians discover that Dani-Sar is not a pliant tool, they dethrone him and make his brother king. Dani-Sar is taken to Sirlandia, where he is held in custody. Outwardly he receives good treatment, but his heart is eaten away by loneliness, despair, and homesickness. He cannot endure the cold climate of the north and the hypocritical hospitality of his captors.

In this remarkable play Benavente is well-nigh as inscrutable as the sphinx. He recognizes the power of civilization and the inevitability of its advance. Yet he seems to value even more highly the gentle, noble patriotism of his hero. Other savages he describes as depraved and superstitious, although brave and in love with liberty. The whole composition is a masterly objective treatment of the unavoidable conflict between an advanced and a backward race.

=Thesis Plays.=--Those who are familiar only with Benavente's earlier manner can scarcely conceive of him as the author of a problem or thesis drama. A tendency to deny the presence of a thesis may be observed on the part of certain reviewers and critics. But careful reading of the plays and consideration of their chronological development disclose that at one period in his career Benavente's mind was busy with the problems of married life in such a way that he produced something very close to the drama with a purpose. We may trace the beginning of this tendency back to some of the first plays in which a strong woman is introduced as a foil to her worthless companions. Later, _Alma triunfante_ is a glorification of a woman's generosity of soul, and _Por qué se ama_ describes the influence of compassion in causing a woman to cling through thick and thin to the object of her affection.

In 1905 and 1906 appeared the plays that best illustrate a purposeful treatment of conjugal relations. Benavente's prime object is to idealize feminine love and constancy. A second theme, second in prominence only to the first, is a glorification of true love itself. The topic of compassion, already referred to, is carried to its greatest extreme in the gloomy but powerful tragedy _Más fuerte que el amor_.

_=Rosas de otoño.=_--The most striking of the problem plays is _Rosas de otoño_. Some critics who deny a thesis elsewhere admit it in this production. The heroine, Isabel, is married to Gonzalo, an unfaithful husband, who gives no heed to his wife's strictures, but persists in asserting that she is sacred to him in spite of everything. Gonzalo's daughter by an earlier marriage, María Antonia, marries a certain Pepe, whose actions are not above criticism. Yet Gonzalo defends him. Baseless rumors are circulated against the fair fame of María Antonia, and Pepe wishes to divorce her. Again Gonzalo defends him. This is too much for Isabel, who chides her husband so severely that she really succeeds in breaking through his selfishness. Although he endeavors to defend a feeble cause by an argument in favor of delinquent men, it is clear that his heart has been touched, and that Isabel, after long years of patient resignation, is destined to enjoy her "Autumn Roses."

The prevailing gloom of _Rosas de otoño_ is relieved by certain trivial and even comic incidents on the part of minor characters, so arranged that they do not appear out of place. Moreover, Benavente is not too partisan; although frankly defending a cause, as a follower of Shakespeare he cannot forget that he is depicting human life. He gives due weight to the partial justice in the selfish arguments of Gonzalo and Pepe, and does not insist that they are utterly depraved. Heedlessness and egoism make them yield to temptation, but Gonzalo never overlooks the fact that his wife's honor must be respected and treasured.

Notwithstanding the good qualities of _Rosas de otoño_ and kindred pieces, the play dealing with more or less conventional marital problems can scarcely be regarded as characteristic of Benavente. He is probably more successful in other directions.

_=Los malhechores del bien.=_--No other play of Benavente has provoked so great an outcry as _Los malhechores del bien_. On the surface it is a clever comedy containing an arraignment of misguided charity. It was received by the audience as anti-religious propaganda. On the night of its first performance many people left the theater by way of protest. It does not seem necessary to regard a dramatist as anti-clerical because he censures and ridicules the abuses and the patronizing attitude of religious organizations. The fact that they are religious is really accidental. The fault lies in the frailty of human nature. One Spanish reviewer very sensibly treats the play as a simple comedy and deprecates the storm of disapproval that greeted its appearance.[i.9]

It is worth noting that side by side with serious efforts Benavente produced between 1904 and 1906 four pieces marked exclusively by the search for comic effect. Especially amusing is _Las cigarras hormigas_, the longest member of the _Teatro_, a rollicking three act comedy, literally crammed with fun from beginning to end.

=Period of Maturity.=--_Los buhos_ was first performed in February, 1907, and _La malquerida_ in December, 1913. To the seven years between these dates belong twenty-five theatrical pieces that reveal Benavente as a mature, confident, versatile dramatist. So perplexing is the succession of different types of plays that they can be logically discussed only by disregarding chronology and making divisions according to subject matter.

=Moral Tendency.=--Prepared as a reader might be, after perusal of the problem plays, to anticipate further changes, he could scarcely expect from Benavente's pen simple sketches written with no other aim than to uphold humble virtues. Yet in some cases that is exactly what we find. A definite moral tone is observable in a large portion of Benavente's recent output. _Los buhos_ is a beautiful treatment of the pure affection entertained by two scholars, father and son, for two friends who are mother and daughter. _Por las nubes_ suggests emigration to South America as a remedy for the struggling middle classes; in this play there is a resort to the expedient of making one of the characters (a physician) a mouth-piece for the author's opinions. _¡A ver qué hace un hombre!_ is a plea for the unemployed workman. _Hacia la verdad_ furnishes a eulogy of simple pleasures. _De cerca_ is a literary gem that shows how the distrust existing between rich and poor may be overcome if they can learn to understand the common humanity that binds them. _La fuerza bruta_ and _La losa de los sueños_ glorify the spirit of sacrifice.

At first sight it seems as if Benavente's whole theory of art had been revolutionized. The key to the solution of the problem is in the pages of _De sobremesa_. In his weekly articles he frequently discusses conditions of wretchedness in the world about him. He suggests practical remedies for the alleviation of misery among the poor and in the middle classes. He evinces such a spirit of commiseration for human woes that no one can wonder that his natural feelings of sympathy and his desire to benefit his fellow men are reflected in his dramas. Thus it is that we find intensely moral plays coming from the hand of the man who wrote in the preface to the standard edition of his works: "I love art above all things, but all that I have attained in my works has been only a vain longing of my infinite love."

=Plays for Children.=--A passion for the welfare and happiness of children is one of the keynotes of Benavente's existence. In periodical writings he maintains that the young are neglected in Spain, that they receive a miserable education, and that the poor are wont to regard those children who die young as truly fortunate. Yet he feels that the most important element in the future improvement of the race is the careful upbringing of the newer generations. In company with other people Benavente long agitated the founding of a theater for children. His efforts were at last crowned with success, and he himself wrote for the new institution _El príncipe que todo lo aprendió en los libros_, _Ganarse la vida_, and _El nietecito_. He endeavored, with considerable success, to combine fairy legends, playful imagination, and educational value. Unfortunately the theater seems to have been a failure; its existence was limited to about one year.

=Romantic Plays.=--Benavente has always possessed a vein of poetry or of romance that makes him take delight in pure fancy. More than once in _De sobremesa_ he defends works of imagination. In his own career the tendency can be traced back to the _Teatro fantástico_, and it is presumably connected with veneration of Shakespeare. Thus it is that we find among recent productions, not only the children's plays but _La princesa sin corazón_, _La copa encantada_, _El último minué_, and other flights of fancy. The inspiration that brought forth _Los intereses_ creados may perhaps be assigned to the same source.[i.10]

=Miscellanies.=--It must not be supposed that recent years have witnessed a decline on the part of Benavente in power of irony and observation of character. Not only are these qualities present in nearly all his plays, but they are predominant in some. _Abuela y nieta_ is a delightful character sketch. _De pequeñas causas_... is reminiscent of the earliest plays. _Los ojos de los muertos_ is a gloomy tragedy of unhappy marital relations. And so we might continue with other scattered titles.

_=Señora ama and La malquerida.=_--To the period now being discussed belong the two most striking (from the point of view of tendencies) of Benavente's latter-day achievements, _Señora ama_ and _La malquerida_. They carry us to rural districts and plunge us into an inferno of ignorance, corruption, and vice. The author of these tragic histories has no illusions about the innocence of the country. Benavente is reported to have said that he liked _Señora ama_ better than any other of his plays. The verdict of public and critics has been in favor of the companion piece. One critic, in particular, has used _La malquerida_ as an argument to place Benavente among the really great masters of the world's literature.[i.11]

_La malquerida_ is a tragedy with a unified plot; the end of each act forms a climax, while the whole leads to a final crisis. A drama with the plot hinging upon a complicated series of incidents was about the only thing lacking to round out Benavente's _teatro_. It may now be claimed that he has cultivated with success practically every variety of composition that might reasonably be attempted in modern times for a modern audience.

=Analysis.=--The scene of _La malquerida_ is laid among country people in fairly easy circumstances. Raimunda, the leading female character, is married to Esteban.[i.12] She has a daughter, Acacia, from a former marriage, and one of her chief desires is that her husband and daughter be on good terms. To her disappointment, Acacia ever since childhood has shown an aversion toward her stepfather, too strong to be overcome by Esteban's kindness and by the many presents that he has brought to her upon various occasions.

At the time of the opening scene of the play, Acacia is betrothed to Faustino, son of a neighboring farmer, Eusebio. She had previously been engaged to her cousin, Norberto, but the engagement had been broken for no obvious reason. One night, just after a visit in company with his father to the house of his fiancée, Faustino is murdered; shortly afterwards the first act ends.

The community is aroused, and the finger of suspicion is directed against the unfortunate cousin, Norberto. Especially do Eusebio and his remaining sons believe him guilty, and when justice, on account of lack of proof, does not detain Norberto, they determine to take their own revenge. They lie in wait for him as he is coming to see Raimunda, fall upon him, and wound him. He is carried to Raimunda's home, and there tells her a secret and also some horrible rumors that are being circulated in the community. He discloses that Esteban had long been in love with his stepdaughter Acacia, and that he could not bear the idea of losing her. Therefore he had threatened Norberto with death if he should insist upon marrying his cousin; that was the true reason for the breaking of the engagement. Later, when Acacia was betrothed to an outsider, Esteban could not use threats, but he was driven nearly crazy at the thought of being abandoned by his stepdaughter. He talked matters over with his servant El Rubio, and inflamed him to such an extent that he murdered Faustino.

Suspicion has been aroused by certain unguarded statements made by El Rubio while under the influence of wine. The whole community begins to suspect Esteban of the crime.

At the beginning of the last act Esteban and El Rubio have gone away, apparently with a vague idea of flight, but they soon return to face justice. Esteban regrets having been an accomplice in murder; El Rubio offers to take the responsibility if Esteban will agree to secure his liberty after a short interval. At this moment Raimunda enters, and accuses her husband of the crime. Together they review their life of the past few years, she criticizing him and he defending himself. He says that he has not been able to endure it; that the presence of the girl Acacia has always made his blood boil; that he has tried to resist, but in vain. If Acacia when a child had only called him father and had loved him, all would have been well. Raimunda takes pity on him when he says this, and assures him that they will live happily after sending Acacia to the house of a relative. Thereupon Acacia enters, and shows hatred and scorn for her stepfather. He is saddened by her attitude, and chides her. Raimunda begs her to call him father, before he gives himself up to justice. Then Acacia can no longer restrain the feelings that she has so long concealed from everybody. Instead of father she calls him Esteban; she embraces him, and Raimunda realizes the final truth. Her daughter has always loved her stepfather. Infuriated, she calls upon everybody within hearing, and tells the dreadful secret. Esteban tries to escape with Acacia, in order to enjoy his newly discovered love. When he finds that he is unable to get away, he fatally wounds his wife, Raimunda. Fatality again places Acacia, the "Ill-beloved," on the side of her mother, and this time forever; Raimunda prepares to die, satisfied with her final victory.

=The Latest Plays.=--The _estreno_ of a play of Benavente is now one of the principal events of the theatrical year in Madrid. His reputation is securely established, and the public looks to him for the great events of the season. It is true, perhaps, that no play since 1913 has reached the heights achieved by _La malquerida_ and other masterpieces. The keynote of _El collar de estrellas_, _La propia estimación_, and _Campo de armiño_ seems to be the building of character. Nowhere else, perhaps, is the author quite so insistent in setting a standard of human virtue. As a natural consequence he paints some personages who come perilously close to being angels or villains. The tendency is quite in line with the progressive development of Benavente's dramatic and intellectual life. Possibly his art has suffered slightly from a desire to exert a good moral influence, but his reflections have become correspondingly more profound and valuable. Moreover, we must not forget his astonishing versatility. He can stop in the midst of a series of didactic plays and compose something like _Los intereses creados_ or _La malquerida_.[i.13] Therefore it is fair to assert that each new step in the evolution of his _teatro_ adds to what has gone before without supplanting it.

=Replies to Criticism.=--Certain criticisms of methods employed by Benavente have been noticed. Replies made by him to unfavorable comment are contained in the following statements:

"If any remorse troubles my artistic conscience, it is because I have often sacrificed art to preaching; but in Spain... it is necessary to preach so much, and the theater is such a good pulpit!"[i.14]

"And what shall I say of myself? I am the same man that I was in 1897; even my concessions to middle-class sentimentalism, as I could demonstrate with texts, do not belong to the present day alone. And why not? An author has the whole work in which to say what he feels and what he thinks; later, in the conclusion, seeing that life does not conclude anything, why not please the public? If this public, with or without concessions, had not been on my side from the beginning of my dramatic career, could I have continued to present plays? The public was my real support against the critics, who were almost unanimous in affirming that that was not drama."[i.15]

"No one is more opposed than I am to giving scandal either in books or in conduct. I shall never defend my works as literary works, but I will defend them as works of spotless morality. If in any of them there is anything that may seem sinful in appearance, it is not I who am speaking; it is some person for whose morality I am not responsible. I am accustomed to allow the personages of my works to express themselves according to their character and temperament. Unfortunately these evil characters are the ones who are always closest to the truth. Only God and my artistic conscience know that it is necessary for us to lie when we wish to moralize."[i.16]

"My life as a dramatic author cannot be remembered without remembering Rosario Pino, the ideal interpreter of so many comedies of mine when my comedies were pleasing only to myself; whereas at present they are pleasing to many people, and not at all to me. And I am more mournful now at not being in accord with the applause, than I was then, when I could not agree with the censure."[i.17]

_=Teatro del pueblo.=_--The opinions of Benavente on various technical and critical matters related to the stage are found in a book of essays called _Teatro del pueblo_ after the first article, which is an argument in favor of the establishment of a free theater for the people. Many of the themes discussed in the book allow the author to give free play to satire and irony. He criticizes savagely theatrical conditions in Spain, favors translations, upholds moving-pictures, one act plays, vaudeville, the circus, photography, etc., at the expense of the legitimate stage; but through it all there appears a man fond of poetry, interested in the lower classes and in children, an artist and a clear-headed man of affairs.