CHAPTER XXIX.

CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION.

Ceylon--Sikkim--Bhotan--Khassya Hills--Pegu--Jamaica--Conclusion.

The complete success which has attended the cultivation of chinchona-plants in the Neilgherry hills, encourages the hope that similar happy results will follow their introduction into other hill districts of Southern India, which have been described in more or less detail in previous chapters. I have no doubt of the suitability of the Pulney hills, the Koondahs, the Anamallays, and Coorg for such experimental cultivation; and trials should hereafter be made on the Mahabaleshwurs, the high hills east of Goa, the Baba-bodeens, Nuggur, Wynaad, the Shervaroys, and the mountains between Tinnevelly and Travancore.

The hill districts of the island of Ceylon, which have the necessary elevation, and are within the region of both monsoons, also offer peculiarly favourable conditions for the cultivation of chinchona-plants, probably equal to the best localities on the peninsula of India. Mr. Thwaites, the Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Peradenia, takes a deep interest in this important measure, and under his auspices there can be no doubt of its ultimate success. It was from the first determined to send a portion of the chinchona-seeds to Ceylon, although the whole expense of the undertaking has been borne by the revenues of India, and no assistance whatever has been given by those colonies which will thus profit by its success.

The gardens at Peradenia are 1594 feet above the level of the sea, and the following table will give a correct idea of the climate:--

---------------------------------------------------------------------- OBSERVATIONS taken at PERADENIA, in Ceylon, in 1857. ----------+--------------------+----------+--------------------------- | Thermometer. | Rainfall | +------+------+------+ in | MONTH. | Max. |Mean. | Min. | inches. | REMARKS. ----------+------+------+------+----------+--------------------------- 1857. | | | | | | | | | | January | 82 | 79.3 | 74.7 | 1.8 |{ Fine and sunny. Cold dewy | | | | |{ nights and foggy | | | | | mornings. February | 82.5 | 79.8 | 76.5 | 1.3 | Do. do. do. | | | | | March | 84.2 | 82 | 77.5 | 5.8 |{ A few showers of rain in | | | | |{ the evenings. | | | | | April | 86.5 | 81.9 | 77.5 | 8.4 |{ Rain in the latter part | | | | |{ of the month. | | | | | May | 82.5 | 81.5 | 75 | 4.7 |{ Showery, with occasional | | | | |{ gales of wind. | | | | | June | 82.5 | 81.1 | 75.5 | 6 | Showery. | | | | | July | 80.5 | 77.1 | 75.5 | 9.8 | Continued rain. | | | | | August | 81.5 | 79.2 | 77.5 | 6.4 | Showery, with high winds. | | | | | September | 82.5 | 78.8 | 75.5 | 7.2 | Rainy. | | | | | October | 81.5 | 78 | 74.5 | 14.9 |{ Rainy, with occasional | | | | |{ sunshiny days. | | | | | November | 82 | 77.9 | 73.5 | 22.3 | Heavy rain. | | | | | December | 81.5 | 78.6 | 75.5 | 2.8 |{ Fine. Cold nights and hot | | | | |{ days. | | | +----------+ | | | | 96 | ----------+------+------+------+----------+---------------------------

It is evident that Peradenia is far too low and hot for chinchona cultivation. The _C. succirubra_, and some other species, would probably grow to fine large trees there, but the bark would be very thin, and would yield little or no febrifugal alkaloids. But there are many other localities in Ceylon admirably suited, from their elevation and climate, for this cultivation, and sites may be selected, well adapted to the different species, from 5000 feet to Pedrotallagalle, which is 8280 feet above the sea. Among these is the Government garden of Hakgalle, at Nuwera-ellia, which is 6210 feet above the sea, in a climate with an annual temperature of about 59° Fahr., and abundantly supplied with moisture. Here most of the chinchona-plants have been established under the superintendence of Mr. Thwaites, who is assisted in their cultivation by Mr. McNicoll, a zealous and intelligent gardener from Kew. Mr. Thwaites reported, last September, that the progress of the important experiment in the cultivation of chinchonæ was satisfactory.

In February 1861 the first instalment of chinchona-seeds arrived in Ceylon, being a parcel of the "grey-bark" species sent from the Neilgherry hills by Mr. McIvor; and soon afterwards a portion of the "red-bark" seeds was received. In April six plants of _C. Calisaya_ were transmitted from Kew, but two only survived, and are now growing vigorously at Hakgalle. Last September eight cuttings had been taken from them, two of which had rooted. From the seeds received early in 1861, 800 plants had been raised last September, namely, 530 of _C. succirubra_, 180 of _C. micrantha_, 25 of _C. Peruviana_, 45 of _C. nitida_, and 60 of the "grey-bark" species without name.

In January 1862 I forwarded parcels of seeds of _C. Condaminea_ and _C. crispa_ to Mr. Thwaites; and early in March six Wardian cases filled with chinchona-plants, from the depôt at Kew, were shipped for Ceylon.

Chinchona cultivation in Ceylon has thus been fairly started. It is exceedingly gratifying to hear that many coffee-planters will be glad to try the experiment upon their estates;[532] and that Mr. Thwaites will shortly be in a position to distribute plants from the Hakgalle garden.[533]

Chinchona-trees, in their wild state, have never been found at a greater distance than one thousand miles from the equator, and they are essentially inter-tropical plants; though they only flourish at considerable elevations above the sea. The reason appears to be that one of their chief requirements is a tolerably equable climate throughout the year, which the temperate zones, with their great differences of temperature between winter and summer, do not afford. For this reason sites were selected, in the first instance, both in India and Ceylon, within the tropics; and indeed this point was essential for the first experiments, because all the other conditions of the growth of chinchonæ could not have been found beyond the equatorial zone. Under cultivation, however, it is probable that, with other favouring circumstances, these plants might thrive within the temperate zone, at short distances from the tropic, and attention was naturally drawn to the hill districts of the Eastern Himalayas, in Bengal. The usefulness and importance of the introduction of the chinchonæ into India will be much enhanced if their cultivation can be extended to these regions, and attempts will, therefore, be made to form chinchona plantations in Sikkim, Bhotan, and subsequently in the Khassya hills.

The province of Sikkim,[534] at the base of the mighty Himalayan peak of Kunchinginga, consists entirely of the basin of the river Tista, which, with its tributaries, drains the whole country. Its position, opposite to the opening of the Gangetic valley, between the mountains of Behar on the one hand and the Khassya hills on the other, exposes it to the full force of the monsoon. Its rains are, therefore, heavy and almost uninterrupted, accompanied by dense fogs and a saturated atmosphere throughout the year. There are frequent winter rains accompanied by cold fogs, alternating with frost, hail, and snow. March and April are the driest months, but rains commence in May, and continue with little intermission until October. The bounding mountains are very lofty, and snow-clad throughout a great part of their extent; but the central range in Sikkim, which separates the Tista from its great tributary the Rangit, is depressed till very far into the interior. The rainy winds have thus free access to the heart of the province.

The snow-level is at 16,000 feet; and the mean monthly temperature of the English hill station at Darjeeling, which is 7430 feet above the sea, and in lat. 27° 3´ N., is as follows:--

----------------------------- DARJEELING. +------------+--------------+ | MONTH. | Mean | | | temperature. | +------------+--------------+ | January | 40 | | February | 42 | | March | 50.7 | | April | 55.9 | | May | 57.6 | | June | 61.2 | | July | 61.4 | | August | 61.7 | | September | 59.9 | | October | 58 | | November | 50 | | December | 42 | +------------+--------------+

The annual rainfall is 122.2 inches.

Of course no chinchona-plant would flourish in such a climate; and in the latitude of 27° it will be necessary to seek for suitable sites in much lower situations than in the hill districts of Southern India, which are in corresponding latitudes to those of the chinchona forests. In the Neilgherries the sites have been selected at the same altitudes as those at which the plants are found in South America, but in the Eastern Himalayas the localities must probably be chosen upwards of a thousand feet lower for each species--the _C. Condaminea_ and its companions perhaps at 5000, and the _C. succirubra_ between 3000 and 4000 feet.

From the sea-level to an elevation of 12,000 feet Sikkim is covered with a dense forest, consisting of tall umbrageous trees, often with dense grass jungle, and in other places accompanied by a luxuriant undergrowth of shrubs. In the tropical zone _Myrtaceæ_, _Leguminosæ_, and tree-ferns are common, and the air is near saturation during a great part of the year. _Vaccinia_ are found at from 5000 to 8000, and snow occasionally falls at 6000 feet. A sub-tropical vegetation penetrates far into the interior along the banks of the great rivers, and tree-ferns, rattans, plantains, and other tropical plants are found at 5000 feet, in the Ratong valley.[535]

I should conjecture that the extreme limit for the growth of the hardier species of chinchonæ, in Sikkim, will be found where their constant companions the tree-ferns and _Vaccinia_ end, namely at 5000 feet; and that the best sites for such species as _C. Calisaya_ and _C. succirubra_ are about 1000 to 2000 feet lower, amidst the sub-tropical vegetation of the valleys.

Bhotan, which adjoins Sikkim on the east, is a mountainous district of much the same character. In its western part the mountain ranges are lofty and rugged, and the river-courses very deep and generally narrow. The climate is equable, and the humidity of the winter appears to increase in the part adjoining Sikkim. The steepness of the mountains, and the influence of the elevated mass of the Khassya hills to the south, make the lower slopes, which skirt the plains of Assam, drier than those more to the eastward. Deep narrow valleys carry a tropical vegetation very far into the interior of Bhotan, among lofty mountains capped with almost perpetual snow. These attract to themselves so much of the moisture of the atmosphere, that the bottoms of the valleys are comparatively dry and bare of forest. The flora resembles that of Sikkim.[536]

The Khassya hills in 25° N. lat. form an isolated mass, rising up from the plains of Assam and Silhet to a height of 6000 feet. They rise abruptly from the plains of Silhet to the south, and at 3000 feet tree vegetation ceases, and is succeeded by a bleak stony region, with a temperate flora, up to 4000 feet, where the English station of Churra Poorji is built. The table-land is here three miles long by two, to the eastward flat and stony, and to the west undulating and hilly. On the south there are rocky ridges of limestone. The southern side of the hills is exposed to the full force of the monsoon, and the rainfall is excessive, as much as 500 or 600 inches annually. Further in the interior the fall is less, and it gradually decreases until the valley of Assam is entered. This great rainfall is attributable to the abruptness of the mountains to the south, which face the Bay of Bengal, and are separated from it by 200 miles of Jheels and Sunderbunds. The heavy rains on the Khassya hills are quite local, as in Silhet the fall is only 100 inches. The plateau presents a bleak and inhospitable aspect, and there is not a tree, and scarcely a shrub to be seen, except occasional clumps of _Pandanus_. This desolation is caused by the furious gales of wind, and the extraordinary amount of rain which washes off the soil. The valleys are open, though with deep flanks, and the hill-tops are broad. The grassy slopes to the north are covered with clumps of shrubby vegetation, and the forests are confined to sheltered localities. Though the rainfall on the southern side is 600 inches, twenty miles inland it is reduced to 200 inches. The mean annual temperature of Churra Poorji is 66°, and in summer the thermometer rises to 88° and 90°. To the westward of the Khassyas lie the Garrows, which do not attain a greater height than 3000 to 4000 feet.[537]

The flora of the Khassya hills bears a greater resemblance to that of the hills in Southern India than to the Sikkim and Bhotan types. Genera and species forming masses of shrubby vegetation are identical with those of the Neilgherry _sholas_. It is probable that chinchona-plantations, especially of _C. succirubra_, might hereafter be formed advantageously on the northern slopes of the Khassyas, but it is evident that the best chances of success for the species growing at great altitudes, in South America, are offered in the Himalayan districts of Sikkim and Bhotan.

With a view to the establishment of chinchona-plantations in the Eastern Himalayas, plants have been forwarded by Mr. McIvor to the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta. On January 19th, 1862, there were at Calcutta 91 plants of _C. succirubra_, all except four supplied by Mr. McIvor; six of _C. Calisaya_ from Java, and 133 of "grey-bark" species, of which 106 were supplied by Mr. McIvor, and twenty-seven were raised from the original South American seeds. Altogether there were 230 of the valuable species of Chinchonæ, besides fifty-nine of the worthless _C. Pahudiana_. It is intended to commence a chinchona plantation on the lower and outer range of Darjeeling in Sikkim at once, with a propagating-house on the model of Mr. McIvor's at Ootacamund; and afterwards to form a nursery for species growing at lower elevations on the Khassya hills.

There is another region in our Eastern dominions where suitable localities may be found for the cultivation of chinchona-plants, but it is as yet too little explored, and the difficulties of obtaining supplies, labour, and transport would be too great at present to allow of the possibility of forming plantations for some years to come. I allude to the recently formed province of Pegu. Dr. Brandis, the Conservator of Forests in Pegu, reports that it will be preferable to delay the introduction of chinchona-plants into that province, until their cultivation shall have proved successful in other parts.

In Pegu there are four great mountain ranges, running parallel with the sea-coast, which separate the valleys of the principal rivers. Commencing from the eastward, the first range is the Arracan-Yomah, dividing Arracan from Pegu, which is not higher than 4000 feet. The Pegu-Yomah, the principal seat of the Pegu teak, which separates the valleys of the Irrawaddy and the Sitang, only has a mean elevation of 2000 feet. The third range consists of the Martaban and Tenasserim coast-ranges, and barely attains a height of 5000 feet. The fourth and most eastern range, forming the watershed between the Sitang and Salween rivers, extends into the large and compact mountain mass of Yoonzaleen, to the south-east of Toungoo. The area of this lofty region is a hundred square miles, and several peaks rise to a height of 7000 and 8000 feet above the sea. The rains are heavier on these hills than on the adjacent plains, and the temperature is much cooler and more uniform. The formation consists of granite, gneiss, and quartzite. Up to 3000 feet the vegetation is of a tropical character, at which elevation teak disappears, and pines (_Pinus Khasyana_) begin, and go up to 5000 feet on dry gravelly soil. There are plenty of small mountain streams on these hills, with running water throughout the year; and the valleys and slopes are covered with evergreen forest.[538]

The Yoonzaleen hills are doubtless the best localities for chinchona-plantations in Pegu, but as yet there are no facilities for taking any steps with a view to the introduction of these inestimable trees, which will hereafter be as great a blessing to the fever-haunted jungles of Pegu as to those of India. The Yoonzaleens are forty miles from the town of Toungoo, which is at a distance of fifteen days of river navigation from Rangoon; and until a Sanatarium is formed on those hills, or some European settlers have established themselves there, it will be useless to attempt the introduction of the chinchona-plants. Before many years, however, it is to be hoped that plantations on the Yoonzaleen hills will supply quinine-yielding bark to the inhabitants of the plains of Pegu.

In a former chapter I stated that I gave directions for the transmission of a supply of seeds both of the "grey" and the "red-bark" species to two of our West Indian islands--Trinidad and Jamaica. In Trinidad they did not germinate, but in Jamaica, under the watchful care of Mr. N. Wilson, the Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens in that colony, they came up plentifully. By the spring of 1861 Mr. Wilson had a good stock of all the species in the gardens on the sweltering plains, where the "grey-bark" species naturally began to die off, but the _C. succirubra_ plants were doing well, and sixty of them were quite strong enough to be planted out early in June. On the 4th of June, 1861, Mr. Wilson removed 120 plants, 60 of _C. micrantha_ and 60 of _C. nitida_, to the foot of Catherine's Peak, which is 4000 feet above the sea. Here he was obliged to leave them, as the Jamaica Government had furnished him with no efficient assistant. In November he reported that the plants of _C. succirubra_ were doing well, and by the latest accounts, dated March 24th, 1862, all the plants were thriving; but the chinchona experiment is not likely to succeed in Jamaica, owing to the listless apathy of the legislators of this colony. They have taken no steps to supply Mr. Wilson with assistant-gardeners, have allotted no land in suitable localities as sites for chinchona-plantations, and have thus neglected to secure the successful introduction of a product which would have enriched the island, when the means of doing so were placed gratuitously at their disposal by the Secretary of State for India.

In our Eastern possessions the successful cultivation of quinine-yielding plants in the hills of Southern India, in Ceylon, and in the Eastern Himalayas, will undoubtedly be productive of the most beneficial results. Commercially this measure will add a very important article to the list of Indian exports; the European community will be provided with a cheap and constant supply of an article which, in tropical climates, is to them a necessary of life; and the natives of fever-haunted districts may everywhere have the inestimable healing bark growing at their doors.

It is impossible to exaggerate the blessings which the introduction of chinchona-cultivation will confer upon India. Since quinine has been extensively used among the troops in India, there has been a steady diminution of mortality; and whereas in 1830 the average per-centage of deaths to cases of fever treated was 3.66, in 1856 it was only one per cent. in a body of 18,000 men scattered from Peshawur to Pegu.[539] The present measure will not only ensure a constant and cheap supply of quinine to those who already enjoy its benefits, but it will also bring its use within the means of millions who have hitherto been unable to procure it. Many lives will thus annually be saved by its agency. In former ages its use would perhaps have changed the history of the world. Alexander the Great died of the common remittent fever of Babylon, merely from the want of a few doses of quinine.[540] Oliver Cromwell was carried off by ague, and, had Peruvian bark been administered to him, which was even then known in London, the greatest and most patriotic of England's rulers would have been preserved to his country. In time to come the lives of men of equal importance to their generation may be saved by its use, while the blessings which it will confer on the great mass of mankind, and especially on the inhabitants of tropical countries, are incalculable. The introduction of chinchona-plants into our Eastern possessions will be the most effective measure which could have been adopted to ensure a permanent and abundant supply of febrifugal bark; and a debt of gratitude is, therefore, due from India to Lord Stanley, who originated it, and to Sir Charles Wood, who has sanctioned all the necessary arrangements, until this great enterprise has finally been crowned with complete success. To Mr. Spruce, as the most successful collector in South America, and to Mr. McIvor, who has so ably and zealously conducted the cultivation in India, the chief credit of having achieved so important a result is due; but the author may be allowed to express his deep satisfaction at having been one of the labourers in this good work, where all have worked so zealously.

APPENDIX A.

GENERAL MILLER, AND THE FOREIGN OFFICERS WHO SERVED IN THE PATRIOT ARMIES OF CHILE AND PERU, BETWEEN 1817 AND 1830.

WHEN the war of independence broke out in South America, many gallant spirits were attracted from different countries of Europe to fight for liberty and justice against Spanish oppression. Fired with enthusiasm for the cause of liberty, these knights errant, many of whom had been distinguished in the wars of Napoleon and Wellington, went forth to risk their lives for an idea. That they were in earnest is proved by the fact that, out of the whole number of sixty-seven, as many as twenty-five were killed or drowned, and eighteen were wounded.

In this band of brave adventurers, next perhaps to Lord Dundonald, the late General Miller takes the most prominent place, as one of the ablest, the truest, and the best. There is a halo of romance round all who joined in this crusade for liberty; all passed through many strange adventures, and did honour to the land from which they hailed; but the lamented old warrior who went to his rest last year was pre-eminent amongst his gallant companions, for his many acts of chivalrous daring and bravery.

William Miller, a native of Kent, served in the British Field Train Department of the Royal Artillery, during the Peninsular war, under Lord Wellington. He was present at the sieges and storming of Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and San Sebastian, at the battle of Vittoria, and investment of Bayonne. He had charge of a company of Sappers and Miners in the American war, was within a few yards of General Ross when he received his death-wound near Baltimore, and was also present at the attack upon New Orleans in 1814.

In 1817, having been placed on half-pay, and tired of an inactive life, he proceeded to South America, and offered his services in the war against the Spaniards. He was appointed Captain of artillery by the Government of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, crossed the Andes into Chile, and saved two pieces of artillery, under a heavy fire, at the battle of Talca, in March 1818. In April he became a Major, and assisted with his regiment at the declaration of Chilian independence on September 18th, 1818. In 1819 he commanded the Marines in Lord Cochrane's squadron, and in March an explosion of gunpowder, on the island of San Lorenzo, in Callao Bay, shattered one of his hands to pieces, injured his face, and caused blindness for many days. In October he was again at the head of his men, leading them to victory at Pisco, when he was pierced by two balls, one passing through his liver, and another through his breast. In February 1820, though still weak and suffering from his former desperate wounds, he headed the storming party in the boats, in the gallant attack and capture of the forts of Valdivia in Chile, where he was again wounded in the head; and in the subsequent attempt on Chiloe he received a ball through his left groin, and a cannon-shot broke one of his feet. In May 1821 he landed in Peru, and defeated the Spaniards in the hard-fought battle of Mirabe; in 1823 he conducted a most adventurous and romantic campaign through the whole range of the deserts of Peru, from Arequipa to Pisco, defeating the Spaniards, with greatly inferior numbers, on several occasions; and in the same year he became General of Brigade.

In May 1824 General Miller received the command of the Peruvian cavalry of Bolivar's liberating army, and took a principal part in the victory of Junin in the following August. Soon afterwards he assumed the command of the whole of the cavalry of the liberating army, at the head of which he charged, and routed the division of General Valdez in the glorious battle of Ayacucho, at a most critical moment. This brilliant action was fought on the 9th of December 1824, and decided the fate of the war, the entire Spanish army of 10,000 men under General La Serna, Viceroy of Peru, being utterly routed. In February 1825 he was Prefect of Puno, and in April of Potosi; but in 1826 he returned to England on leave of absence, to cure himself of his wounds, which still caused him great suffering.

After a stay of some years in England he returned to Peru in June 1830 but, owing to the factious outbreaks in which he did not choose to take part, he again obtained leave of absence in 1831, and visited many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, especially the Sandwich and Society groups, of which he wrote a most interesting account; and only returned to Peru after the constitutional election of General Orbegoso as President of the Republic. In the early part of 1834 he served in a campaign against the revolutionary chief Gamarra; and, though defeated at Huaylacucho, his operations were on the whole successful, and he was promoted to the rank of Grand Marshal of Peru on June 11th, 1834.

In October 1834 he was appointed Military Governor of Arequipa, Puno, and Cuzco; and it was at this time that he conceived the idea of forming a military colony in the valleys to the eastward of Cuzco, on the banks of some of the tributaries of the great river Purus. In March 1835, while on the point of setting out on an exploring expedition, a revolution broke out in Cuzco, and he was arrested by Colonel Lopera. He was, however, allowed to set out on his expedition, with two companions and seven Indians. He penetrated on foot to a greater distance to the eastward of Cuzco, on this occasion, than has ever been done before or since.

In September 1835 he again placed himself under the orders of the Constitutional President Orbegoso, and in February 1836 he captured Salaverry and eighty officers of his revolutionary army by a very clever stratagem, near Islay. Shortly afterwards Santa Cruz established the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, and General Miller was sent as Minister Plenipotentiary to Ecuador, where he signed a treaty of peace and amity between that Republic and the Confederation. In August 1837 he became Governor of Callao, when all customs duties were reduced one half, smuggling ceased, and the receipts were soon quadrupled. He organized an efficient police; made a subterraneous aqueduct 3 feet wide, 3-1/2 deep, and 280 yards long, for supplying Callao with water; commenced the erection of a college; and formed a tramway for the conveyance of goods from the mole to the custom-house. The people of Callao still look back with satisfaction and gratitude to the period when General Miller was their Governor.

In February 1839, on the overthrow of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, General Miller was banished with many other able and distinguished men, whose names were taken off the army list by a decree dated in the following March. This unjust and illegal act was cancelled by a law of Congress dated October 1847.

After leaving Peru in 1839, General Miller was appointed in 1843 H. M. Commissioner and Consul-General for the Islands in the Pacific. In 1859 he revisited Chile and Peru, partly for his health, and partly to obtain the payment of his large arrears from the Government. When he arrived in Peru the Vice-President Mar, while the President, General Castilla, was absent at Guayaquil in 1859, reinstated him on the army list of Peru, by a decree dated December 9th, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho, and granted him his current pay as a Grand Marshal of Peru, and he continued to reside at Lima until his death on the 31st of October 1861. It is satisfactory to be able to record, for the honour of the Peruvian nation, that the whole of his claims were acknowledged in Congress in a most handsome way, and without a dissentient voice. But unfortunately the executive in Peru is still able to set the laws passed by the representatives of the people at defiance; delays and evasions were resorted to by Castilla, and the last days of one from whom Peru had perhaps received as valuable services as from any of her own sons, were embittered by the treatment which he experienced from the President of the Republic.

General Miller was a man of whom England may well be proud. He was one of those characters who combine great ability and extraordinary daring, almost amounting to rashness, with modesty and diffidence. If there was any fault to be found in any part of General Miller's former career, in the camp or in the cabinet, it would be from himself that it would first be heard. To his bravery and prowess, his body riddled with bullets, and the history of South American independence, bear testimony; to his administrative ability the gratitude of the people of Callao and Cuzco is the witness; his pure standard of honour, his scrupulous integrity, his warmth of heart, and single-mindedness are known to a wide circle of sorrowing friends; but of his numerous acts of self-denial and charity few can tell, for he was one who let not his left hand know what his right hand did.

In person he was more than six feet high, and when young he was remarkably handsome; his features and shape of the head being of a thoroughly English type. In society he was exceedingly agreeable to the last; his conversation was always interesting, and often very instructive; and there was a peculiarly gentle and winning expression in his eyes. He took a deep interest in the attempt to introduce chinchona cultivation into India, and I was indebted to him for much valuable advice, and for many letters of introduction which were of great service to me. He also supplied me with most of the material which has enabled me to write the narrative of the insurrection of Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, forming the ninth chapter of the present work.

His memoirs, published by his brother many years ago, give by far the fullest and most interesting account of the war of independence in Chile and Peru, though the work of Garcia Camba, a Spanish general, is the best military history.

General Miller breathed his last on board H.M.S. 'Naiad' in Callao Bay, on the 31st of October 1861; and the remains of the gallant old warrior were interred in the cemetery at Bella Vista, with all the honours which the Peruvian Government could bestow. While the body was being embalmed, two bullets were found in it, and twenty-two wounds were counted on different parts of his frame. The most gratifying incident on the occasion was that the people of Callao, who had never forgotten the good he had done them as their Governor, insisted on carrying the coffin.

One of the last things on which General Miller was employed was the compilation of the list of his brave companions in arms. Such a list, I believe, has never appeared before; and as the employment interested and amused him during a time of much harassing annoyance, it gives me great pleasure to be able to insert it here, in order that his labour may not have been entirely in vain.

A LIST of Foreign Officers, Europeans (not Spaniards) and North Americans, who served in the patriot armies in Chile and Peru, between the years 1817 and 1830, showing the killed, wounded, and not wounded.

[The rank specified is that which each officer held when killed, or in 1830.]

KILLED.

MAJOR-GEN. FREDERIC BRANDSEN (French).--Served on the staff of the French army under Prince Eugène. Killed at the battle of Ituzaingo, Feb. 20, 1827.

MAJOR-GEN. JAMES WHITTLE (Irish).--Was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho. Killed in suppressing the mutiny of a battalion near Quito in 1830.

COLONEL CHARLES O'CARROL (Irish).--Served in the British and Spanish armies in the Peninsula. Killed in an encounter with the Araucanians at Pangal in 1831.

COLONEL WILLIAM FERGUSON (Irish).--Present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho. Killed in defending General Bolivar from assassins at Bogota on September 25th, 1828.

COLONEL PETER RAULET (French).--Was a cornet in the French cavalry at Badajoz, when that place was taken by storm on April 6th, 1812, and remained a prisoner of war in Scotland until the peace of 1814. Married and left children in South America. Killed at the battle of the Portete, Feb. 27th, 1829.

COLONEL WILLIAM DE VIC TUPPER (Guernsey).--Married and left children in the country. Killed at the battle of Sircay, April 17th, 1830.

LIEUT.-COL. JAMES A. CHARLES (English.)--Served in the Brigade Royal Artillery, and joined the Lusitanian Legion under the late General Sir Robert Wilson in Portugal in 1808. Upon Sir Robert being appointed Military Commissioner with the Russian army, he served as his aide-de-camp in the campaigns of Russia and Germany, and received the crosses of St. George of Russia, of Merit of Prussia, and of Maria Theresa of Austria. Killed in the action of Pisco on November 7th, 1819.

LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES SOWERSBY (German).--Killed in the action of Junin, August 6th, 1824.

MAJOR WILLIAM GUMER (German).--Killed at the battle of Ica, April 7th, 1822.

MAJOR THOMAS DUXBURY (English).--Present at the battle of Junin. Killed in the affair at Matara, Dec. 3rd, 1824.

CAPTAIN QUITOSPI (Russian).--Killed in an encounter with the Araucanians on the Bio-Bio, 1818.

CAPTAIN JOSEPH BORNE (Irish).--Married, and left children in the country. Killed in an encounter at Arauco, May 1820.

CAPTAIN JOHN B. GOLA (French).--Killed in an encounter at San Carlos, 1821.

CAPTAIN ROBERT BELL (English).--Killed at the battle of Sircay, April 17th, 1830.

LIEUT. CHARLES ELDREDGE (U.S.).--Killed at the assault of Talcahuano, December 6th, 1817.

LIEUT. ERNEST BRUIX (French), son of Admiral Bruix.--Killed in an encounter with the Araucanians on the Bio-Bio, January 1819.

LIEUT. ---- GERARD (Scotch).--Killed at the battle of Cancha-rayada, March 19th, 1818.

LIEUT. LE BAS (French).--Killed in the affair of Biobamba, April 22nd, 1822.

LIEUT. CHRIS. MARTIN (English).--Killed near Ayacucho in 1824.

CORNET DANVIETTE (French).--Killed in an encounter at Caucato near Pisco, in 1822.

SURGEON WILLIAM WELSH (Scotch).--Killed in the action of Mirabe, on May 21st, 1821.

TOTAL KILLED 21.

WOUNDED.

LIEUT.-GEN. WM. MILLER (English).--(See ante.)

MAJOR-GEN. FRANCIS B. O'CONNOR (Irish).--Brother to the late Fergus O'Connor. Was for some time Chief of the Staff of the Liberating Army, and was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho; was wounded at Rio de la Hacha in 1820. He is now residing on his estate at Tarija, in Bolivia. Married and has children in the country.

MAJOR-GEN. ARTHUR SANDS (Irish).--Wounded at the battle of Pantano de Bargas, July 25, 1819. Was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho. Died at Cuenca in 1832.

MAJOR-GEN. DANIEL F. O'LEARY (Irish).--Wounded at Pantano de Bargas. He was Aide-de-Camp to General Bolivar in Columbia and Peru, and subsequently H.B.M. Chargé d'Affaires and Consul General at Bogota, where he died in 1854, having married and left children in the country.

MAJOR-GEN. PHILIP BRAUN (German).--Present at the battle of Ayacucho. He was wounded at Junin, August 6th, 1824. He married in the country, and now resides in Bolivia.

COLONEL GEORGE BEAUCHEF (French).--Was at the battles of Austerlitz, Jena, Marengo, and Friedland. Wounded at the assault upon Talcahuano, December 6th, 1817. Died in Chile 1840, having married and left children in the country.

LIEUT.-COL. EDWARD GUITEKUE (German).--Wounded in the action of Pisco, November 7, 1819. Died in Chile 1857. Married and left children in the country.

LIEUT.-COL. EUGÈNE GIROUST (French).--Wounded at the cutting-out of the 'Esmeralda' under the fortresses of Callao, Nov. 5th, 1820. Was page to King Jerome; served in the French Horse Artillery; was made prisoner at the crossing of the Beresina, and sent to Siberia. Married in Peru, and is now residing at Lima.

CAPTAIN PHILIP MARGUTI (Italian).--Wounded at the battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1818. Died in Chile 1848.

CAPTAIN HENRY ROSS (U.S.).--Wounded at the battle of Yerbas-buenas, March 31st, 1813. Died in Chile.

CAPTAIN GEORGE BROWN (English).--Present at the battle of Junin. Wounded at Ayacucho, Dec. 9th, 1824.

CAPTAIN JAMES LISTER (English).--Wounded in the affair of Rio Hacha in 1820. Died at St. John's, New Brunswick.

CAPTAIN HENRY HIND (English).--Wounded in an attack on Callao, Oct. 2nd, 1819. Since dead.

CAPTAIN W. KENNEDY (Jamaica).--Wounded in an encounter at Rio Cuarto, where both his eyes were shot out in 1821. Died some years afterwards in the United States.

CAPTAIN DANL. L. V. CARSON (U. S.).--Wounded at the assault upon Talcahuano, Dec. 6th, 1817. Married and left children in the country. Died in Chile.

CAPTAIN HENRY WYMAN (English).--Present at the battle of Junin; wounded at Ayacucho in 1824. Is now residing in England. Married in South America.

LIEUT. JOHN HELDES (German).--Wounded at the battle of Cancha-rayada, March 19th, 1818. Since dead.

LIEUT. JAMES LINDSAY (English).--Belonged to the expedition under General Beresford. Wounded at the battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1818. Married and left children in the country.

TOTAL WOUNDED 18.

NOT WOUNDED.

LIEUT.-GEN. MICHAEL BRAYER (French).--Was present at the assault of Talcahuano, Dec. 6th, 1817, and in the battle of Cancha-rayada, March 19th, 1818. He then returned to France, was reinstated in his former rank of General of Division, and was created a Peer of France.

MAJOR-GEN. JAMES PAROISSIEN (English).--Was Surgeon-General to the Buenos-Ayrean army under General Belgrano in 1814, and to the army of the Andes, under General San Martin, at the battles of Chacabuco, Feb. 12th, 1817, and Maypo, April 5th, 1818. Was appointed Aide-de-Camp to General San Martin, and became Major-General in 1821. Associated with M. Garcia del Rio, proceeded from Lima to Europe on a political mission in 1822, returned to Peru in 1825, and died on his passage from Callao to Valparaiso in 1826.

COLONEL JOHN O'BRIEN (Irish).--Served at the siege and taking of Montevideo and campaign in the Banda Oriental in 1814; was Aide-de-Camp to General San Martin in the battles of Chacabuco and Maypo; withdrew from active service while with the army in Peru in 1822. Joined General Santa Cruz a short time previous to the battle of Yanacocha, at which he was present, August 12th, 1835. He became a Major-General, and died in 1861.

COLONEL BELFORD H. WILSON (English).--Son of the late General Sir Robert Wilson; was Aide-de-Camp to General Bolivar from 1823 to 1830; subsequently H.B.M. Chargé d'Affaires and Consul General at Lima and at Caraccas. Was appointed a K.C.B. Died in London in 1858.

COLONEL ALBERT B. D'ALVE (French).--Son of the French General of the same name. Served in the campaigns in Spain and Russia, 1809 and 1813, and was at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. Died at Valparaiso 1821. Married and left children in the country.

COLONEL BENJAMIN VIEL (French).--Served in the French army encamped at Boulogne in 1804, and commanded a squadron of cavalry at the battle of Waterloo 1815. Is now a Major-General in Chile.

COLONEL JOSEPH RONDISONI (Italian).--Is now a Major-General in Chile.

COLONEL CLEMENT ALTHAUS (German).--Was present at the battle of Junin. Became a Major-General and died at La Concepcion in Peru, having married and left children in the country.

COLONEL SALVADOR SOYER (French).--Was Commissary to the navy, afterwards Aide-de-Camp to General Gamarra, and for some time charged with the Ministry of War. Married and left children in the country. Died at Lima.

LIEUT.-COL. LEWIS CRAMMER (French).--Retired from the army 1818; was afterwards murdered with his wife and family by the Patagonian Indians.

LIEUT.-COL. ALEXIS BRUIX (French).--Son of Admiral Bruix; was page to Napoleon I. Was present at the battle of Junin. Was killed by accident at Lima in 1825.

LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES WOOD (English).--Married and left children in Chile. Died in England while on leave of absence in 1856.

MAJOR MICHAEL O'CARROL (Irish).--Died in Chile in 1839, having married and left children in the country.

CAPTAIN WILLIAM SMITH (English).

CAPTAIN MILLER HALLOWES (English).--Was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho. Married and resides in the United States.

CAPTAIN WILLIAM HARRIS (Irish).--Is now living at Cuenca, in Ecuador.

CAPTAIN JOHN RODRIGUEZ (English).--Married and left children in the country. Died at Callao.

CAPTAIN ROBERT YOUNG.--Belonged to the 71st under General Beresford. Died in Chile.

LIEUT. MAGUAN (French).--Retired in 1818, and was subsequently killed in a duel in France.

LIEUT. COUNT LUCIEN BRAYER (French).--Served as Aide-de-Camp to his father, General Brayer, in Chile.

STAFF-SURGEON THOMAS FOLEY (Irish).--Dead.

STAFF-SURGEON CHARLES MOORE (English).--Present at Junin. Dead.

STAFF-SURGEON HUGH BLAIR (Irish).--Dead.

STAFF-SURGEON MICHAEL CRAWLEY (Scotch).--Dead, Sub-prefect of Lampa, under General Santa Cruz, in 1837.

Total 24.

Drowned at sea off Chiloe, in 1823, while prisoners of war on board a Spanish privateer.--Major Soulange (French); Captain W. Hill (English); Captain Robert Hannah (English); and Lieut. Saint Amarand (French).

ABSTRACT.

Total of killed 21 " wounded 18 " drowned 4 " not wounded 24 --- 67 ---

_Note._--Admiral George Martin Guise, Captain George O'Brien, Lieut. Bayley, and others killed; Admiral Thomas Lord Cochrane, Commodore (now General) Thomas Charles Wright, and others wounded; are not included in the foregoing list, because they belonged to the Patriot Navy.

APPENDIX B.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GENUS CHINCHONA, AND OF THE SPECIES OF CHINCHONÆ NOW GROWING IN INDIA AND CEYLON.

_From Weddell, Howard's Pavon, Spruce, and Karsten._

CHINCHONA.

(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,'_ p. 17.)

_Calyx_ tubo turbinato, cum ovario connato, pubescente; limbo supero, 5-dentato, persistente; dentibus in præfloratione valvatis.

_Corolla_ hypocrateriformis, tubo tereti vel subpentagono, in angulis baseos nonnunquam fisso, intus glabro vel rarissime pilosiusculo; limbo 5-fido: laciniis lanceolatis, intus glabris, margine piloso-barbatis (pilis claviformibus lanatis) extus tuboque pubescentibus, æstivatione valvatis, explicatis patulo-recurvis.

_Stamina_ 5, corollæ laciniis alterna, glabra; filamentis inferno tubo insertis, adnatis; antheris linearibus, inclusis vel apice subexsertis, bilocularibus, introrsis, imo dorso affixis.

_Ovarium_ disco carnoso, pulviniformi, obsolete 5-vel 10-tuberculato coronatum.

_Ovula_ numerosa, in placentis linearibus dissepimento utrinque affixis peltata, imbricata, anatropa.

_Stylus_ simplex, glaber, stigma bifidum, in tubo corollino latens vel subexsertum.

_Capsula_ ovata oblonga vel lineari-lanceolata, utrinque sulcata, limbo calycis coronata, lævis vel obscure costata, glabra pubescensve, bilocularis, polysperma, septicide a basi ad apicem dehiscens, valvulis sejunctis, pedicello simul longitrorsum fisso.

_Semina_ plurima in placentis angulato-alatis denique liberis peltatim affixa, sursum imbricata, compressa, nucleo oblongo ala membranacea margine denticulata ex toto ambitu cincto.

_Embryo_ in axi albuminis carnosi rectus; cotyledonibus ovatis integris; radicula tereti, infera.

_Arbores_ vel _frutices_ sempervirentes, vallium Andinarum intertropicalium inter 10° lat. Sept. et 19° lat. Austr. altitudineque 1200-3270 metr. supra Oceani ripas incolæ; trunco ramisque teretibus; ramulis sæpius subtetragonis, cicatrices foliorum stipularumque delapsorum monstrantibus, harumce vestigiis in ramis adultis etiam conspicuis.

_Cortex_ amarus, Quinina et Chinchonina fœtus. _Peridermis_ varia: modo tenuissima valde adhærens, e solo _subere_ confecta; modo incrassata et stratis squamiformibus, e parenchymate cellulari librove externo constantibus formata, natura frustulatim aliquando secedens, cæterum arte haud ægre solubilis.

_Lignum_ albidum, demum flavescens, e stratis concentricis pro arboris ætate numero variis, radiisque medullaribus secundum caulis longitudinem singulariter protractis constans; cellulæ enim quibus isti conflantur hic horizontaliter extenduntur sicutique in radiis vulgo notis lateriformes seriem plerumque triplicem agunt, illic vero præter normam longitrorsum summopere protractæ seriem simplicem exhibent; quapropter radii in trunco nudato (adempto cortice) inspecti lineas exiles hinc et illinc brevi spatio ellipticeque dilatatas effingunt. Vasa porosa approximata, seriebus continuis simplicibus ordinata.

_Medulla_ ramorum vulgo tetragona.

_Folia_ opposita, integerrima, decrescenti-venosa, petiolata, glabra varie pubescentia vel tomentosa, planiuscula aut margine leviter revoluta; axillis venarum venularumque paginæ inferioris in nonnullis speciebus scrobiculatis; scrobiculis simplicissimis, vacuis aut succum adstringentem sudantibus. Epidermidis cellulæ, paginæ superioris præsertim, ambitu vulgo sinuosæ, in quibusdam speciebus humore translucido tumidæ, particulas foventes innumeras innatantes, oculo armato mirantique motu rapido quasi vitali trepidantes.

_Petiolus_ limbo brevior, semicylindricus, subtus convexus, supra planus vel subcanaliculatus, rarissime in foliis arboris junioris teres.

_Stipulæ_ interpetiolares plerumque liberæ citoque deciduæ vel basi leviter connatæ, intus ad basim glandulis minutis lanceolatis crebre consitæ.

_Flores_ interdum fortuitu 4 vel 6-meri, cymoso-paniculati, albi vel sæpius carnei aut purpurascentes, mire fragrantes; paniculis terminalibus, ramulis pedicellisque basi bracteatis.

CHINCHONA CONDAMINEA.

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'_ No. i.)

CHINCHONA CHAHUARGUERA.

CHINCHONA CHAHUARGUERA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis, oblongis ovato-lanceolatisque, undulatis, acuminatis acutisque, pedunculis paniculatis.

_Arbor_ 3-4 orgyalis, comâ, frondosâ ramosissimâ.

_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, cortice fusco aspero maculis cinereis indutus, rimis longitudinalibus transversalibusque.

_Lignum_ compactum, durum.

_Rami_ erecti, teretes, cortice extus nigrescente, intus pallido cinnamomeo.

_Ramuli_ subteretes, asperi, rimacei, colore ferrugineo-roseo.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, lanceolata, oblonga ovato-lanceolataque, acuminata acutaque, utrinque glabra, subtus nervosa, venosa, integerrima, undulata, marginibus revolutis, glandulis subtus concavis rotundis villosis, ad sinus nervorum ortum insertis, supra prominentibus.

_Foliola_ floralia opposita, petiolata, parva, ovata ovaliaque, glabra, marginibus revolutis, nervis centralibus purpureis.

_Petioli_ teretes, purpurei.

_Stipulæ_ duæ oppositæ, supra-axillares, sessiles, ovatæ, integerrimæ, acuminatæ, basi cohærentes, nervo centrali prominente, marginibus revolutis, deciduæ.

_Pedunculi_ communes, terminales, axillaresque, subtetragoni, partiales pubescentes, bracteolis oppositis subulatis ad pedicellorum basim, pedicellis pubescentibus.

_Pedicelli_ bracteolis subulatis, solitariis ad basim.

_Calyx_ rosaceus.

_Corolla_ dilute purpurea, extus pubescens, laciniis reflexis supra villoso-tomentosis, villis albicantibus.

_Antheræ_ fauce parum exsertæ.

_Capsula_ ovalis oblongaque, purpurea (nonnullæ capsulæ ventricosæ), bilocularis, bivalvis, valvulis basi dehiscentibus.

_Habitat_ in collibus Santa Rosa nominatis, situ Huancocolla appellata, ditione Vilcobamba, Loxa provinciâ.

_Floret_ Maio, Junio, Julio, et Augusto.

Varietas Prima, _Cascarilla amarilla fina del Rey_. Varietas Secunda? _Cascarilla colorada fina del Rey._ Varietas Tertia? _Cascarilla crespilla negra._

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'_ No. vii.)

CHINCHONA URITUSINGA.

CHINCHONA URITUSINGA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis; pedunculis axillaribus terminalibusque, paniculato-corymbosis, trifidis.

_Arbor_ 20-ulnaris et ultra.

_Lignum_ compactum, luteo colore.

_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, teres, crassus, fuscus, nonnullis maculis nigris obsitus, _comâ_ frondosâ, valde ramosâ.

_Cortex_ scaber, fuscus, maculis nigris fuscis et albicantibus, rimis transversalibus. _Color_ intus luteus, amarissimus, acidulus, non ingratus.

_Rami_ erecto-patentes, teretes; superiores brachiati, complanati, leviter pubescentes, dilute fusci.

_Ramuli_ utrinque sulcati.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, lanceolata, integerrima, acuta, supra glaberrima, nervosa, venosa, subtus per nervos et venas villosiuscula; nervis alternis, rarius oppositis; marginibus revolutis; _tenerrima_ subtus hirsuta; _glandulis_ minimis, rotundatis, subtus concavis, circum villis albicantibus ad nervorum ortum insertis, supra prominentibus.

_Petioli_ teretes, supra canaliculati, glabri, subtus hirsuti, basi incrassati.

_Stipulæ_ duæ, oppositæ, interfoliaceæ, supra-axillares, ovatæ, acutæ, erectæ, integerrimæ, cauli appressæ, pubescentes, deciduæ.

_Pedunculi communes_ axillares terminalesque, trifidi, obtusi tetragoni, paniculato-subcorymbosi, hirsuti, solitarii, erecti, complanati, foliis breviores; _partiales_ hirsuti, tri-septemflori trifidique; bracteolis duabus, oppositis, minimis, ovatis, acutis, concavis, rubris, ad basim insertis, persistentibus.

_Pedicelli_ teretes, breves, pubescentes; bracteolis solitariis, minimis, ovatis, acutis, persistentibus, ad basim et in medio insertis.

_Flores_ nonnulli sessiles.

_Calyx_ campanulatus, ruber, glaber, in fructu ampliatus, denticulis retroflexis persistens.

_Corolla_ albo-rosacea, extus pubescens. _Tubus_ intus glaber. _Limbus_ quinque-partitus, patens; laciniis villoso-tomentosis; villis albicantibus, densis, longiusculis.

_Capsula_ oblonga, angusta, striata, striis longitudinalibus prominentibus utrinque sulcata, lævis, calyce crescente ampliato coronata, denticulis retroflexis, bilocularis, bivalvis, basi dehiscens.

_Semina_ minima, fulva, alâ obovatâ leviter lacerâ albo-pallescente circumdata. _Receptaculum_ lineare.

_Habitat_ prope Loxa in collibus Cajanuma, Uritusinga, Boqueron, Villonaco, Huancabamba, et Ayavaca.

_Floret_ Maio, Junio, Julio, et Augusto.

_Vulgo_ "Cascarilla Fina."

CHINCHONA CRISPA (_Tafalla_).

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.'_)

CHINCHONA CRISPA. _Quina fina de Loja_, _Cascarilla crespilla buena_, _Quina Carrasqueña_, Tafalla M.S. sec. Ruiz in M.S. Compendio, Mus. Brit.

_C. Condaminea._ H. et B. specimen florif. in pl. x. Pl. Equin. exclus. specim. fructif. et descriptione.

_C. Chahuarguera_, varietas (tertia). Pavon, Nueva Quinologia.

CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA.

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'_ _No._ iii.)

CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, ovatis ovalibusque; petiolis nervisque rubicundis, glabris, nitidis; pedunculis racemoso-paniculatis.

_Arbor_ 6-7 orgyalis.

_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus; aliquoties duo tresve ex eadem radice repullulant. _Coma_ frondosa ramosaque. _Lignum_ compactum.

_Cortex_ fuscus, nonnullis maculis albicantibus; rimis transversalibus horizontalibusque.

_Rami_ erecti, nonnulli horizontales, teretes, _teneri_ pubescentes.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, ovata ovaliaque, integerrima, acumine brevissimo, nonnulla subrotunda, glabra, superne parum nitida, nervosa, venosa, venis reticulatis, nervis venisque villosis, tenuia marginibus retroflexis. _Folia superiora_, floralia petiolata, lanceolata, nonnulla sublinearia.

_Petioli_ subteretes, basi crassiores, pubescentes, rubicundi sicuti nervi.

_Stipulæ_ duæ, interfoliaceæ, supra-axillares, oppositæ, subamplexicaules, oblongæ, sessiles, integerrimæ, parum concavæ, cauli appressæ, deciduæ.

_Pedunculi_ communes, axillares terminalesque, racemoso-paniculati, pubescentes. _Partiales_ oppositi alternique, pubescentes.

_Pedicelli_ bracteolis lanceolato-subulatis, parvis, concavis, deciduis, ad basim et in medio rubicundo.

_Flores_ pedicellati, nonnulli sessiles.

_Corolla_ rubicunda, marginibus laciniarum ciliatis, villis albicantibus.

_Capsula_ oblonga, parum incurva, immatura rubicunda, bivalvis, basi hians. _Receptaculum_ lanceolatum.

_Semina_ alis dilaceratis.

_Habitat_ ad radices collium, ad declivia Sancti Antonii, in via ad Huaranda Provinciæ Quitensis, locis frigidis.

_Floret_ Julio et Augusto.

_Vulgo._ _Cascarilla Colorada._

In arborum corticumque amputatione, succum lacteum primum profluit; postea, in colorem intense rubicundum transmutatur, unde _Cascarilla Colorada_ nomen oritur.

_Chinchona Succirubra_ (Pavon MSS.) arborea; ramis teretibus; ramulis obtuso-angulatis flavido-pubescentibus; foliis membranaceis magnis latissime ovatis petiolatis, utrinque brevissime attenuatis, supra saturate viridibus glabris subnitidis, subtus pallide viridibus puberulis, ad costam nervosque primarios pubescentibus; petiolis semiteretibus puberulis, supra canaliculatis; stipulis oblongis obtusis carinatis subpuberulis caducis; floribus congestis in paniculam terminalem interruptam dispositis; ramis floriferis pedunculatis pubescentibus erectis compressis trichotomo-ramosis, inferioribus foliosis superioribus bracteatis; bracteis subpersistentibus oblongo-linearibus, extus subpubescentibus carinatis basi attenuatis; calycibus turbinatis, basi bracteola minuta suffultis, tubo dense albido pubescente, limbo cupulari quinque-dentato rubescente sparsim pubescente, dentibus brevibus latis acutis, dorso carinatis; corollis hypocraterimorphis brevissime pubescentibus, tubo inferne attenuato, limbo quinquefido, laciniis ovatis acutis, intus longe (ad siccam) luteo-barbatis; staminibus subinclusis glabris; stylo versus basim attenuato; stigmate bipartito incluso.

(_From Spruce's Report, p. 104, described from fresh specimens._)

CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA, Pavon.

_Hab._--In sylvis primævis cordilleræ occidentalis Andium Quitensium præcipue ad radices montis nivosi _Chimborazo_, alt. 2000-5000 ped. Angl. (610-1520 metr.) supra mare.

_Descr._--_Arbor_ pulcherrima, 50-80 pedalis; caudice recto circumferentiâ 4-usque ad 10-pedali; comâ symmetricâ elongatâ, ramis infimis longioribus deinde superioribus sensim decrescentibus paraboloideâ, vel ramis infimis iis proxime sequentibus sub-brevioribus ovoideâ.

_Cortex_, caudicis ubi lichenibus non obvelatus est fusco-badius, haud profunde longitudinaliter rimosus, demum etiam rimulis transversalibus fissus; ramulorum annotinorum rufescens, novellorum e viridi cinerascens secus apicem rubescens.

_Succus_ ecoloratus, cortice autem inciso, in lucem aeremque susceptus exinde sæpius albescit, postea sensim albescit.

_Rami_ decussati, angulo 50°-80° adscendentes, teretes, e foliorum stipularumque cicatricibus annulati; novelli tamen tetragoni foliosi fragiles succosi, pube brevi deciduâ densiuscule vestiti.

_Folia_ opposita decussata, cujusque ramuli 4-6 paribus contemporalibus, cujusque paris inter se subæqualia raro valde inæqualia, sæpe perfecte ovalia, secus paniculas ovato-ovalia, raro rotundato-ovalia, basi in petiolum sensim abrupteve attenuata, apice abrupte acuta vel levissime acuminata rarius rotundata, nitida subcoriacea (fragilissima tamen) læte viridia ad luteum potius quam ad cæruleum vergentia, ætate tota sanguinea, suprà sparse decidue puberula et inter venas plus minus bullato-elevata, subtus pubescentia, raro in utraque facie glabrata; venis 11-12 cujusque lateris, angulo 56°-59° cum costâ tereti (siccando complanatâ) efformantibus, subtus prominulis, a costâ ultrà, medium rectis dein sensim incurvantibus et prope marginem anastomosantibus; petiolo tereti, e folii laminâ decurrente suprà lineis duabus parum elevatis percurso, tomentello. Folia ramulorum tenuiorum nonnunquam ovali- vel etiam obovato-lanceolata.

_Stipulæ_ interpetiolares deciduæ erecto-patulæ ligulato-oblongæ obtusæ ad costam carinatæ, basi subventricosæ superne explanatæ, reticulato-venosæ, sub-puberulæ, juniores pallide virides, adultiores basi roseæ vel etiam totæ sanguineæ.

_Pedunculi_ ex axillis foliorum superiorum minorum lanceolatorum (v. etiam ad bracteas lineari-lanceolatas subulatasve redactorum) orti, subinde paniculam elongatam pedalem vel etiam sesquipedalem efformantes, tomentosi, bis terve decussatum pinnati dein trichotomi; divisionibus basi bracteatis sæpe indistincte oppositis v. plane alternis. _Pedicelli_ calycesque basi bracteolis minutis rigidis sanguineis ovato-lanceolatis basi utrinque unidentatis suffulti.

_Calyx_ parvus dense appresso-puberulus; _tubus_ subturbinato-hemisphæricus; _limbus_ cupulatus fere ad medium usque in lobos 5 lato-triangulares carinatos, apicibus sinubusque acutis, fissus, pubescens raro subglabratus, persistens.

_Corolla_ calycem fere 5-ies excedens, extus dense puberula, ante anthesin clavata postea hypocraterimorpha; _tubus_ elongato-truncato-obconicus, intus glaber; _limbus_ e lobis 5 patulis valvatis elongato-ovato-lanceolatis, margine apiceque villis densis albis (siccando flavidis) barbatis.

_Stamina_, corollæ tubum paululum superantia; _filamenta_ glabra compressa à basi fere ad medium usque cum corollâ concreta; _antheræ_ elongatæ lineares.

_Stylus_ teres; _stigma_ subemersum e lobis duobus ovato-lanceolatis crassis faciebus unisulcis erecto-patulis constans.

_Capsula_ stricta curvulave tenui-ovoideo-fusiformis à basi dehiscens, valvulis dorso costis 5 parum elevatis percursis.

_Semina_ anguste subovali-lanceolata sæpius asymmetrica, alâ margine lacero-fimbriatâ ciliatâ, basi angustata et ibidem integra bilobave.

CHINCHONA CALISAYA.

(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 30._)

C. foliis oblongis vel lanceolato obovatis, obtusis, basi attenuatis, rarius utrinque acutis, glabratis, nitidis vel subtus pubescentibus, in axillis venarum scrobiculatis; filamentis quam dimidia anthera plerumque brevioribus; capsula ovata, flores longitudine vix æquante; seminibus margine crebre fimbriato-denticulatis.

α _Calisaya vera_, arbor foliis oblongo- vel lanceolato-obovatis, obtusis.

β _Calisaya Josephiana_, frutex, foliis oblongo- vel ovato-lanceolatis, acutiusculis.

α. _Calisaya Vera._

_Arbor_ excelsa, trunco recto vel e basi arcuatim ascendente, nudo, crassitudinem corporis humani duplam non infrequenter excedente. Coma frondosa incolas omnes sylvæ ferme superans.

_Cortex_ trunci crassus. Peridermis ejusdem quam in omnibus fere generis speciebus crassior, e libro facile solubilis et avulsa ad hujus superficiem sulcos impressionesve sculpturas referentes detegens, rimis parallelis verticalibus et scissuris transversalibus plus minus annularibus ornata, albida vel etiam nigricans. Ramorum peridermis dealbata aut lichenum thallis diverse marmorata, rimis magis sinuatis et scissuris angustioribus exculpta; aliis annularibus distantibus, aliis brevioribus subapproximatis. In ramulis denique cortex tenuis est, lævigatus et fusco-olivaceus vel nigricans.

_Folia_ oblongo vel lanceolato-obovata (3 to 6 inches) 8-15 cm. long; (1 to 2 inches) 3-6 cm. lat. obtusa, basi acuta aut leviter attenuata, molliuscula, patula, supra glaberrima, nitore scilicet velutino a cellulis epidermidis prominentibus orto condecorata, obscure virentia, venis pallidioribus, parum conspicuis, subtus dilute smaragdina, glabrata, in axillis venarum scrobiculata, scrobiculis ab antica pagina vix manifestis. Petiolus 1 cm. long., virescens, rarius cum costa rubescens. In arbore juniori folia sæpius utrinque acutiuscula sunt, flaccida, læte viridia, eximie velutina, costa et petiolo roseis, nervis supra lacteo-albidis et limbo persæpe maculis roseosanguineis insignito paginaque inferiori plus minus purpurascenti.

_Stipulæ_ oblongæ, obtusissimæ, petiolis longiores vel subæquales, glaberrimæ, basi interna glandulis parce obsitæ.

_Panicula Florifera_ ovata vel subcorymbosa, vix multiflora, pedunculis pedicellisque (2-4 mm. long.) pubescentibus. Bracteæ lanceolatæ.

_Calyx_ pubescens, limbo-crateriformi, dentibus brevibus, triangularibus.

_Corolla_ 9-10 cm. long., tubo cylindrico vel basi subpentagono, et leviter angustato, in angulis interdum fisso, carneo-albescente, laciniis lanceolatis, superne roseis, villis marginalibus candidis.

_Stamina_ in medio tubo latentia; filamenta glabra, dimidiis antheris breviora.

_Stylus_ tubum fere æquans, stigmatis lobis linearibus, subexsertis, viridescentibus.

_Panicula Fructifera_ laxiuscula, haud raro valde depauperata, pedunculis puberulis.

_Capsula_ ovata (.4 to .6 of an inch) 10-15 mm. long., latitudine sua vix duplo longior, basi rotundata, ecostata, glabrata, sub maturitatem rubiginosa, dentibus coronæ brevibus, erectiusculis.

_Semina_ elliptico-lanceolata, margine fimbriato-denticulata, denticulis approximatis, obtusiusculis; nucleo tertiam seminis partem circiter æquante.

_Habitat_ in declivibus et præruptis montium, ad altitud. 1500-1800 m. fervidissimas inter valles Bolivæ et Peruviæ meridionalis, sylvas incolit, inter 13°-16° 30' S. lat., nempe in provinciis Bolivianis Enquisivi, Yungas, Larecaja, et Caupolican dictis, et in provincia Caravaya Peruvianorum.

_Floret_ Aprili et Maio.

β. _C. Josephiana._

_Frutex_ (6-1/2 to 12 feet) 2-3 m. alt., trunco gracili (1 to 2 inches) 3-5 cm. crass.; ramoso, ramis erectis.

_Cortex_ ligno valde hærens, trunci ramorumque schistaceo-nigricans, læviusculus aut lichenibus diversis ornatus scissurisque nonnullis angustissimis, distantibus, annulatim notatus; ramulorum brunneo-rufescens.

_Folia_ oblongo- vel ovato-lanceolata, utrinque subacuta aut obtusiuscula, rigidula, superiora præsertim plus minus concava s. cymbiformia, utrinque glaberrima vel subtus pubescenti-tomentosa, læte viridia, denique sanguinea nervique et petiolus.

_Panicula_ tum florifera cum fructifera sæpissime interrupta.

_Corolla_ quam in varietate præcedente paulo longior. Stamina imo tubo inserta, filamentis nunc brevibus ut Calisayæ Veræ, stylo simul longiore, nunc elongatis antherisque subexsertis, stylo contra iis breviore antherisque superato.

_Capsula_ ut in typo vel flore aliquanto longior et non raro superne plus minus attenuata, versus maturitatem pulchre rubescens simulque ramuli paniculæ. Dentes coronæ paululum elongatæ eleganterque patentes.

CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,' No._ ii.)

CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, ovalibus obovatisque glabris; floribus minimis, paniculatis.

_Arbor_ 10-15 orgyalis, comâ frondosâ.

_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, teres; cortice scabro-fusco-cinereo, sapore valde amaro, acidulo non ingrato; in febribus tertianis usurpari potest; in commercio ignoto.

_Rami_ patuli, teretes, cortice fusco-nigrescente; teneri foliosi, obtuse tetragoni, glabri.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, ovalia obovataque, integerrima, obtusa, acumine brevi, ampla, marginibus revolutis, patentia, ut plurimum quadripalmaria, supra nitida, glaberrima, subtus nervosa, venosa, nervis purpureis; glandulis obovatis, subtus concavis, supra prominentibus, in foliis adolescentibus circum villosis, in senioribus deciduis, ad nervorum axillas insertis.

_Petioli_ breves, vix pollicares, supra plano-canaliculati, subtus semiteretes.

_Stipulæ_ supra axillares, interfoliaceæ, oppositæ, ovatæ, integerrimæ, connatæ, caducæ.

_Panicula_ maxima diffusa, subracemosa, foliosa, floridissima, tomentosa, helvolo colore.

_Pedunculi_ vix striati, tetragoni, compressiusculi, axillares terminalesque, _communes_ brachiati, _partiales_ oppositi alternique, omnes bracteis ovato-subulatis, oppositis, persistentibus, ad basim pedunculorum pedicellorumque insertis.

_Flores_ numerosi, in corymbos parvos multifloros congesti, subsessiles; bracteis minimis, ovatis, acutis, persistentibus ad basim et in medio pedicellorum.

_Calyx_ minimus, quinquedentatus; denticulis acutis, dilute purpurascentibus.

_Corolla_ parva, ut plurimum trilinearis, extus tomentosa, albicans.

_Limbus_ patens, laciniis quinque intus villoso-tomentosis, villis albicantibus extus rubescens.

_Antheræ_ lineares, intra faucem inclusæ, luteæ.

_Capsula_ oblonga, acuta, leviter decemstriata, fusca, calyce coronata, a basi ad apicem dehiscens.

_Semina_ fulva, alâ lineari utrinque acutâ inæqualiter lacerâ cincta.

_Habitat_ in Andium montibus altis, frigidis, et nemorosis, versus vicum San Antonio de Playa Grande, ubi Johannes Tafalla, anno 1797, eam observavit, et iconem, cum nonnullis exemplaribus siccis, et descriptionem, nobiscum communicavit.

_Floret_ Maio, Junio, et Julio.

_Vulgo: Cascarilla fina. Cascarilla Provinciana._

_Chinchona Micrantha_, β. _Oblongifolia_ (Weddell).

_Chinchona Micrantha_, var. α. flor. extus roseis; var. β. flor. extus albidis (Poeppig).

(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 52._)

CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.--_Arbor_ 6-10 m. alt. sat frondosa, trunco recto, tereti, 2-4 dm. crassitudine raro excedente; ramis patulis.

_Cortex_ trunci crassiusculus. _Peridermis_ ejusdem tenuis, libro extus subcarioso vix hærens, plus minus lævigata, sordide grisea fuscescensve; ramorum lævis, cinerascens; ramulorum viridescens.

_Folia_ plerumque ovato-rotundata, 12-20 cm, long. 10-15 cm. lat. basi (præcipue in junioribus) plus minus cuneata vel attenuata, obtusiuscula, membranacea, supra glabra nitidiuscula, læte viridia, subtus læevissime puberula pallide virescentia, venis venulisque parce pubescentibus, axillis pilosiusculis, pilis subfasciculatis. Petiolus 2-3 cm. long. glaber, ejusdem coloris ac costa.

_Stipulæ_ ovatæ, obtusæ, extus pubescentes, intus puberulæ, deciduæ.

_Panicula Florifera_ maxima, thyrsoidea; ramulis subpatentibus pedicellisque (2 mm. long.) pubescentibus, cinereo-virescentibus.

_Calyx_ pubescens, limbo crateriformi, dentibus acuminatis.

_Corolla_ alba, tubo tereti 5-7 mm. long. basi et fauce leviter coarctato, laciniis lanceolatis.

_Stamina_ imo tubo inserta, antheris inclusis filamenta subæquantibus.

_Stylus_ brevissimus; stigmatis laciniis linearibus.

_Panicula Fructifera_ ovata vel subpyramidalis, subconferta, ramulis glabratis.

_Capsula_ lanceolata vel oblongo-lanceolata, 25-30 mm. long. 5-7 mm. lat. utrinque attenuata, glabrata, lævis.

_Semina_ lanceolata, basi integra vel fissa, margine denticulata.

Crescit in nemoribus humidis subobscuris montium, nec non infrequentius juxta ipsas rivulorum ripas, vallium provinciarum Larecaja et Caupolican Bolivianorum, vallisque Tambopata provinciæ Caravaya incola; provenit etiam in editioribus versus Chicoplaya et Playa Grande Peruvianorum.

CHINCHONA NITIDA.

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,' No._ vii.)

CHINCHONA NITIDA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, obovatis, ovali-oblongis ovato-oblongisque, nitidis, paniculâ terminali--_Cascarilla Officinal_. (Ruiz Quinologia, Art. 2, p. 56.)

_Arbor_ procera, a decem usque ad quadraginta ulnas, glabra.

_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, teres, aliquando tres aut quinque repullantes.

_Cortex_ extus scaber, fusco-nigricans, sæpe ex fusco et cinereo colore variegatus; intus obscure fulvus, amarissimus, acidulus non ingratus, in commercio et in febribus tertianis magno usu fit.

_Rami_ seniores teretes, scabri, fusco atri-cinereo colore variegati, _teneri_ leviter tetragoni, fusci.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, obovata, ovali-oblonga ovato-oblongaque, integerrima, nitidissima, decurrentia, marginibus ad basim revolutis, subtus venosa, venis purpurascentibus, glandulis rotundis oblongisque, supra prominentibus, subtus concavis, ad sinus nervorum ortum insertis, villis longis albicantibus vestitis.

_Petioli_ subtus semiteretes, supra planiusculi, purpurei.

_Stipulæ_ interfoliaceæ, oppositæ, supra-axillares, basi coadunatæ, oblongæ, sessiles, obtusæ, intus rubescentes, marginibus reflexis.

_Panicula_ terminalis, composita, subracemosa, rubescens.

_Pedunculi_ multiflori, tetragoni.

_Flores_ breviter pedicellati.

_Pedicelli_ bracteolis ovatis acumine subulato concavis ad basim stipati, persistentes.

_Calyx_ parvus, purpureus.

_Corolla_ alba, extus dilute rubicunda, vix semipollicaris, laciniis intus villosis, villis albicantibus.

_Capsula_ oblonga, decem-striata, rubescens, bivalvis, valvulis basi hiantibus.

_Semina_ ovalia, fulva, alis membranaceis oblongis inæqualiter denticulato cincta.

_Habitat_ in Andium montibus altis, nemorosis, frigidis, ad Pampamarca, Chacahuasi, Casapi, Casapillo, Cayumba, Sapan, Cuchero, aliisque tractibus, et in montibus Provinciarum Huamalies, Tarma, et Jauja.

_Floret_ Maio, Junio, et Julio.

_Vulgo: Cascarilla fina aut Quina fina. Cascarilla lustrosa_ (Pritchett).

(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 47._)

CHINCHONA NITIDA.--C. foliis lanceolato-obovatis, acutis, basi attenuatis, utrinque glabris, nitidis vel inferne leviter pilosis, escrobiculatis; filamentis antheras æquantibus; capsula anguste lanceolata, latitudine sua duplo longiori; seminibus lanceolatis, margine denticulatis.

_Arbor_ 8-12 m. alt., trunco recto, tereti, crassitudine corporis humani; coma parum frondosa.

_Cortex_ trunci crassus, peridermide rimosa, obscure brunnea; ramorum peridermis inæqualis, plus minus sulcato-rimosa, brunneo-cinerascens.

_Folia_ lanceolato- vel oblongo-obovata, 9-10 cm. long., 25 mm. lat., utrinque acuta, basi cuneata aut attenuata, sub-membranacea; supra glabra nitida, subtus nonnunquam (ad venas præsertim) pilosa; petiolo 1 cm. longo.

_Stipulæ_ oblongæ vel obovatæ, obtusæ, deciduæ, raro basi connatæ.

_Panicula_ ovata, subcoarctata, ramulis pedicellisque puberulis; bracteis triangulari-lanceolatis.

_Calyx_ limbo subcampanulato, dentibus triangularibus.

_Corolla_ rosea, tubo subcylindrico, laciniis lanceolatis, villis albidis.

_Antheræ_ apice exsertæ, filamenta æquantes vel paulo breviores.

_Stylus_ antheras haud attingens; stigmatis lobis linearibus, brevibus.

_Capsula_ lanceolata, denique glabra, læviuscula vel striata, sub maturitatem obscure rubiginosa, dentibus coronæ erectiusculis.

_Semina_ lanceolata, utrinque acuta, margine denticulata.

_Habitat_ in montibus altis, noctu frigidiusculis, diu apricis ventilatisque.

(Ruiz et Pavon. Poeppig.)

CHINCHONA PERUVIANA. (_Howard._)

(_The "Pata de Gallinazo" of Pritchett's Collection._)

(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon.'_)

CHINCHONA PERUVIANA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolato-ovatis, basi attenuatis, junioribus lanceolatis, scrobiculatis, paniculâ terminali compositâ.

_Arbor_ procera ... _Lignum_ compactum, luteum.

_Cortex_ extus scaber, rimosus, corticem _Calisayæ_ maxime æmulans, sæpe ex albo et cinereo colore variegatis; intus obscure fulvus, amarus, fragrans.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, lanceolato-ovata, nonnulla lanceolato-obovata, alia elliptica, basi attenuata, obtuse acuminata, juniora lanceolata, scrobiculata, scrobiculis supra valde prominentibus, nitida, subtus venosa.

_Petioli_ subtus semi-teretes, supra planiusculi.

_Panicula_ terminalis, composita, pyramidalis.

_Capsula_ oblonga, leviter decemstriata, calyce coronata, bivalvis, valvulis basi hiantibus.

_Semina_ ovalia, alis membranaceis, valde laceratis.

_Habitat_ in Andium montibus frigidis Cocheros aliisque tractibus.

_Vulgo_: "_Cascarilla Pata de Gallinazo_."

_Obs._:--In commercio magno usu fit.

_Speciminibus nobis à Pritchett datis descript._

CHINCHONA LANCIFOLIA.

(_From Karsten's 'Floræ Columbiæ Specimina Selecta,'_ I. p. 21.)

_Arbor_ vasta, usque ad 24 metr. adscendens, trunco recto, 1-1½ metra in diametro; coma subovata, ramosa, ramis teretibus adscendentibus vel inferioribus, horizontalibus, cortice rugoso, fuscescenti, ut plurimum hic illic profunde transversim annulato, tectis; ramulis brachiatis, compressiusculis, uti pedicelli leviter striguloso-pilosiusculis.

_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, petiolo semitereti 16-20 m. m. longo, supra plano, glabro, subtus pilosiusculo insidentia, lanceolata, acuminata, basi attenuata, integerrima, glaberrima, in axilla venarum leviter scrobiculata, et hic facie inferiore glomerulo pilorum obsita, patentia, læte viridia, nitida, lamina 10 centim. longa, 3-1/2 centim. lata, petiolo nervisque, demum folio integro, rubescentibus; juniora subtus in costa minutissime pilosiuscula; vernatione applicativa.

_Stipulæ_ interpetiolares, liberæ, lanceolatæ, acutæ, pedicellorum longitudine, glaberrimæ; intus basi pluriseriatim glandulosæ, demum rubræ, deciduæ.

_Inflorescentia_ terminalis foliosa, paniculata, e cymis dichotomis axillaribus composita, foliis floralibus lineari-lanceolatis; pedunculi pedicellique bracteis minutis, glabris, lanceolato-acutis, subpersistentibus, suffulti.

_Calycis_ tubus turbinatus, ovario adnatus, pilis minutis, adpressis strigosus; limbus persistens campanulatus, quinquefidus, glaber, rubescens, laciniis triangularibus, acutis.

_Corolla_ tubo cylindrico 10 m. m. longo, extus sericeo, carneo-rubro, intus glabro; limbo quinquepartito, lobis ovatis, acutis, æstivatione valvatis, rubris, extus sericeis, intus margine albide-villosis sub anthesin patentibus.

_Stamina_ quinque, tubo medio inserta, paullo exserta.

_Filamenta_ subulata, glabra, 1 m. m. longa; _antheræ_ lineares, introrse longitudinaliter birimosæ, basi sagittata affixæ, filamentis paullo breviores, plus minus exsertæ; _pollen_ sphæricum granulosum, triocellatum.

_Discus_ epigynus, annularis, carnosus, subpentagonus, quinquesulcatus.

_Ovarium_ inferum biloculare, loculis multiovulatis, placentis linearibus, medio dissepimenti longitudinaliter adnatis, ovula anatropa, pluriseriata, imbricatim adscendentia, mox peltata gerentibus; stylus teres glaber, staminibus longior, exsertus aut inclusus; stigmata duo linearia.

_Capsula_ oblonga, striato-costata, calva, post dehiscentiam septicidam, a basi ad apicem progredientem, calycis limbo diutius coronata, epicarpio cum endocarpio connato, 17-20 m. m. longa, 6-8 m. m. lata.

_Semina_ lanceolata, applanata, 7-8 m. m. longa, 2-3 m. m. lata, spermophoro, a valvis apertis soluto, adhærentia, caduca, ala membranacea, hyalina, imperforata, margine crenulato-denticulata, cincta; nucleo ovali sextam partem fere seminis longitudinis attingente.

_Embryo_ in axi albuminis carnosi rectus, cotyledonibus ovalibus, planis, applicativis, radicula tereti infera.

In declivitate Andium Granatensium inter 5° et 1° lat. Sept. altitudine 2500-3000 metr. supra oceani littora ad temperaturam glacialem in horis nocturnis fere refrigerata hic illic frequenter in locis nebulosis et illuviosis nascitur.

_Tunita_ ab incolis dicta.

APPENDIX C.

NOTES ON THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS EMPLOYED IN INDIA, ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR REAL OR SUPPOSED FEBRIFUGE VIRTUES. BY ALEXANDER SMITH, ESQ.

THE following enumeration of Indian febrifuge plants, though, from the limited time at my disposal, not so complete as could be wished, will serve to give an idea of the great variety of indigenous plants used by the natives of India in the treatment of the different kinds of fevers so prevalent in that country. European physicians of the present day rely to a great extent upon the invaluable products of the _Chinchonas_, as the most certain remedies for these disorders; but a couple of centuries ago, when _quinine_ and the kindred alkaloids were undreamt of, and when even Peruvian Bark, or, as it was then called, "Countess' Bark" or "Jesuits' Bark," was scarcely known, and its source a jealously guarded secret, their ancestors made use of a much greater number of substances, and highly extolled the febrifuge properties of many of our native wild plants. Most of these, however, are now known to be of little use and are discarded from the modern practice of physic, though amongst rustic practitioners, or herb-doctors, they still to a certain degree enjoy their ancient reputation. We must not therefore be surprised that the native doctors of the East, whose knowledge of chemistry and the allied sciences is as limited as was that of our old herbalists, should in like manner ascribe powerful properties to the barks, roots, stems, and other parts of plants which in reality possess as little value in a medical point of view, as the indigenous plants at one time used in our own country.

It must not, however, be imagined from these remarks that all the plants mentioned below are known to be completely devoid of medicinal properties. Some of them possibly possess qualities of the greatest value, and, were they properly tested by the enlightened science of the present day, might yield products useful either as tonics or febrifuges, or prove otherwise valuable. But the great majority are comparatively valueless, and their supposed virtues merely the result of fancy.

ALEX. SMITH.

_Kew, Surrey, April 5th, 1862._

RANUNCULACEÆ.

THALICTRUM FOLIOLOSUM, _D. C._

The bitter roots of this Himalayan species of Meadow Rue are used by the natives in intermittent fevers, and have, according to O'Shaughnessy, been experimented upon by European practitioners, and found serviceable not only as a febrifuge, but as a tonic in convalescence from acute diseases. The plant is an erect, branching perennial, three or more feet high, with large quadripinnate leaves composed of numerous small leaflets. It is common throughout the Himalayas, and is called "Pelijuree" or "Shuprak" by the natives.

COPTIS TEETA, _Wall._

Several bitter roots are called "Teeta" in the Bengal bazaars. Those of the present plant are brought down from the Mishmee Mountains on the northern borders of Assam, and are consequently called "Mishmee Teeta." They are usually packed in little baskets about two inches wide, made of strips of rattan-cane. In the Scinde bazaars they are called "Mahmira," and they are likewise said to be imported from China under the name of "Sou-line" or "Chyn-len," but the plant is not known to be a native of that country. They have an intensely bitter taste, and the native doctors esteem them very highly as a tonic and stomachic. M. Virey says that a decoction of them is a powerful febrifuge, but O'Shaughnessy states that in experiments made in the Indian hospitals they did not seem to exercise any febrifuge virtues, though their tonic properties were very manifest. The roots of an allied American species (_Coptis trifolia_, Salisb.) are used throughout the United States and Canada as a tonic, under the name of "Gold Thread."

ACONITUM, _sp. pl._

The roots of several species of Aconite, common in the Himalayas, are reputed to possess febrifuge properties, but the identification of the particular species is very uncertain. Amongst others the most virulent kind of "Bikh" or "Bish," that yielded by the _Aconitum ferox_, Wall., is said to be thus employed and also in chronic rheumatism; and likewise the "Bikhma" of Hamilton, supposed to be the _Aconitum palmatum_, Don. The little tuber-like roots called "Atees" or "Butees," much esteemed for their bitter tonic properties, are afforded by the _Aconitum heterophyllum_, Wall.

MAGNOLIACEÆ.

MICHELIA CHAMPACA, _Linn._

Several of the _Magnoliaceæ_ are known to possess powerful febrifuge virtues, particularly the _Magnolia glauca_, Linn., and other American species, the bark and fruits of which are greatly used in intermittent fever. Among the Indian species, the only one reputed to possess similar virtues is the "Champa" (_Michelia Champaca_, Linn.), O'Shaughnessy remarking that, after several trials, its bark appeared to him to possess the properties attributed to the _Magnolia glauca_. It, however, contains tannin and gallic acid, both of which are absent in the American bark. The Champa grows to a large size, has ovate-lanceolate leaves from eight to ten inches long and two to four broad, and bears exceedingly fragrant yellow or orange-coloured flowers, which the Hindus offer to their deities.

BERBERIDACEÆ.

BERBERIS LYCIUM, _Royle_.

According to the learned investigations of the late Dr. Royle, it would appear that this species of Barberry afforded the λύκιον ινδικον of Dioscorides. At the present day an extract of the sliced root, stem, and branches is prepared in Nipal and the Dhoon, and employed by the native doctors in diseases of the eyes, for which purpose the drug was also valued by the physicians of old. It is known in Bengal by the name of "Rusoot" or "Rasot," and in Scinde by that of "Ruswul." Employed as a substitute for Chinchona bark this extract has been found to be a most valuable remedial agent in common and tertian agues, checking the fever in three days. The skin is invariably moist during its action. The plant is a small stiff shrub with twiggy, pale-barked branches armed with conical tripartite spines, and bearing clusters of small obovate-lanceolate leaves, either entire or with spiny teeth along the edges.

MENISPERMACEÆ.

TINOSPORA CORDIFOLIA, _Miers_ (= _Cocculus cordifolius_, D. C., and _Menispermum cordifolium_, Willd.).

A tall, climbing shrub with rough corky bark, and broad, heart-shaped, pointed leaves from two to four inches long, upon stalks of about the same length; common in woods throughout the peninsula of India and in Ceylon, and known in the former country by the name of "Guluncha" or "Gurcha," and amongst the Cinghalese by that of "Rassakinda." All parts of the plant have a bitter taste, and an infusion of the young stems and leaves is highly esteemed by the native physicians as a febrifuge medicine, and also as a tonic, while in some districts it is looked upon as a certain cure for poisonous snake-bites. Ainslie says that the bruised plant is put into the water drunk by the Brahmins at some of their religious ceremonies.

TINOSPORA CRISPA, _Miers_ (= _Cocculus crispus_, D. C., and _Menispermum crispum_, Linn.).

This is closely allied to the above, and is known by the same name, "Guluncha." It has smooth bark, more oval and less heart-shaped leaves on shorter stalks. Like the last it is greatly valued in the treatment of intermittent fever; but the natives in Silhet consider that it is more efficacious when found climbing upon mango-trees. It is found in Silhet and Pegu, and in several of the Indian islands.

CISSAMPELOS PAREIRA, _Linn._

The woody stems of this widely spread tropical plant are used in a variety of diseases, and amongst others in fevers, but it is principally valued for its antilithic properties, on account of which it is admitted into our Pharmacopœias under the name of Pareira-brava. It is a tall, hard-wooded climber, indigenous to the tropics of both hemispheres, and is found in all parts of India. In Ceylon, where it is also used as a fever medicine, it is called "Deyamitta."

CAPPARIDACEÆ.

GYNANDROPSIS PENTAPHYLLA, _D. C._ (= _Cleome pentaphylla_, Linn.).

A decoction of the little black seeds of this plant is considered useful in typhus fever, and in convulsive affections. The plant is called "Vaylee" in the Tamul language; "Hurhuriya" in Bengalese; "Caraila" by the Hindus; and "Waila" by the Cinghalese. It is an annual plant, a foot or more in height, with hairy stems, and palmately divided leaves usually with five, but sometimes with seven or only three segments.

CRATÆVA NURVALA, _Ham._ (= _Cratæva Tapia_, Burm.).

A small tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, common on the banks of rivers on the Malabar coast and in Mysore, producing an astringent bark, a decoction of which is prescribed as a tonic in both intermittent and typhus fevers. The Sanscrit name of the plant is "Varuna," and it is the "Nurvala" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus, according to Hamilton, who says that the real name of the plant in the Malabar dialect is "Vala," the prefix "Nur" (water) merely denoting the localities in which the tree is found.

MORINGACEÆ.

MORINGA PTERYGOSPERMA, _Gaertn._ (= _Hyperanthera Moringa_, Vahl.).

Well known in India as the Horse-radish tree, on account of its roots possessing a pungent odour and biting aromatic taste similar to those of our common horse-radish, for which they are substituted by European residents in both the East and West Indies. They are also used medicinally by the native doctors as a stimulant in paralysis and intermittent fevers, and are also considered valuable as a rubefacient. "Morunghy," from which the generic name adopted by modern botanists has been derived, is the Tamul name; and "Sujna" or "Salijuna," the Hindu. It is a small tree, seldom more than twenty feet high, and has large compound three-times pinnated leaves, and axillary bunches of whitish flowers, producing long pendulous three-sided fruits, containing numerous winged seeds, which some authors regard as the source of the celebrated Ben-oil.

CARYOPHYLLACEÆ.

MOLLUGO CERVIANA, _Ser._ (= _Pharnaceum Cervianum_, Linn.).

This little herb is used as a medicine in fevers in Ceylon, where it is called "Pat-paadagan;" and as the plant is also found in the Indian peninsula, it is most probably employed in a similar manner by the Hindu doctors. The order to which it belongs is remarkable for little besides the presence of _saponine_ in several species.

MALVACEÆ.

SIDA ACUTA, _Burm._ (= _Sida lanceolata_, Retz.).

The roots of this have an intensely bitter taste, and their infusion, in conjunction with ginger, is prescribed in cases of intermittent fever, for which they have also been tried in the Indian hospitals, but without satisfactory results, though they were found to possess some medicinal virtues as a tonic. The plant is called "Pata" in Sanscrit; and "Malaytanghie" in Tamul. It is a shrub with narrow lance-shaped, pointed leaves, coarsely toothed along the edges, and either smooth or sprinkled with bristly hairs, especially on the veins underneath.

PAVONIA ZEYLANICA, _Cav._ (= _Hibiscus Zeylanicus_, Linn.).

A tall annual plant, with variable leaves, the lower ones being roundish heart-shaped, and the upper deeply three to five lobed, and whitish or pale-red flowers. It is called "Sittamootie" in Tamul, and an infusion of the root is administered in fevers, but Ainslie states that it does not appear to possess any virtues.

OLACACEÆ.

OLAX ZEYLANICA, _Linn._

A small tree, native of Ceylon and of some parts of India, yielding a fœtid, salt-tasted wood, which is employed in putrid fevers. The Cinghalese, who call the tree "Malla," eat the leaves in their curries.

AURANTIACEÆ.

ÆGLE MARMELOS, _Corr._ (= _Cratæva Marmelos_, Linn.).

The Bengal Quince-tree. Almost every part of this tree is used medicinally by the native Indian doctors. In fever cases a decoction of the bark of the root, and also of the stem, is employed, but when the latter is used it is generally combined with a great variety of other substances. The expressed juice of the leaves, diluted with water, is also administered in incipient fevers and colds. The fruit is a valuable remedy in diarrhœa and dysentery, and has been successfully employed in those complaints by medical men in this country. It is a tree of moderate size, with its young branches furnished with sharp spines, and has ternate or rarely pinnate leaves, and axillary panicles of few large fragrant flowers. It has a great number of vernacular names. In Hindustanee and Bengalee it is called "Bael, Bêl, or Bêla;" in Telinga, "Maredoo;" in Tamul, "Willamarvum;" in Malayan, "Tanghula," &c.

MELIACEÆ.

AZADIRACHTA INDICA, _A. de Juss._ (= _Melia Azadirachta_, Linn.).

The bitter astringent bark of this tree, the Neem or Margosa tree of India, is considered by the native doctors to be a most valuable tonic and febrifuge, and it has been successfully employed as a substitute for Chinchona-bark by English physicians in India. A bitter principle called _Azadirine_ has been obtained from it. Other parts of the tree are likewise reputed to possess medicinal properties: the bitter oil obtained from the pericarp being employed as an anthelmintic, and the olive-like fruit itself in leprosy, while the leaves are universally used in India for poultices. The Neem forms a large ornamental tree, and has pinnate leaves with unequal-sided smooth leaflets sharply toothed at the edges, and loose axillary panicles of bluish flowers. "Neem" or "Nim" is its Hindustanee and Bengalee name; "Nimba," in Sanscrit; "Vaypun" or "Vapan," in Tamul; and "Kohomba," in Cinghalese.

CEDRELACEÆ.

CEDRELA TOONA, _Roxb._

The Toon-tree grows to a large size, and yields a valuable reddish timber, resembling some kinds of mahogany. It has abruptly pinnate leaves composed of from six to twelve pairs of opposite, usually entire, smooth leaflets of an ovate-lanceolate shape; and its flowers are small, yellowish, and sweet-scented, and are disposed in terminal drooping panicles. Toon bark is powerfully astringent, but is said to be devoid of bitterness. It is much esteemed in the treatment of intermittent fever, though seldom administered alone, but generally prescribed in combination with the excessively bitter seed of the _Guilandina Bonducella_. The flowers yield a yellow dye, but the colour is not permanent.

SOYMIDA FEBRIFUGA, _A. de Juss._ (= _Swietenia febrifuga_, Roxb.).

The specific name of this tree indicates its use as a medicine in fevers. The part employed is the bark, which is of a reddish colour and has a very bitter, slightly astringent, but not unpleasant taste. It was long ago highly recommended as a substitute for Peruvian bark by several English doctors in India, and appears to possess considerable medicinal virtues, though Ainslie found that when given in large doses it deranged the nervous system, occasioned vertigo and subsequent stupor. The tree is called "Shemmarum" by the Tamuls; "Soimido" by the Telingas (whence the generic name adopted by botanists); and "Rohuna" by the Bengalese. It is a very large, hard-wooded tree, with abruptly pinnate leaves composed of from three to six pairs of opposite, oval-oblong blunt leaflets; and produces large panicles of small yellowish flowers towards the points of the young branches.

The bark of another large Indian tree belonging to this order, the "Chikrassee" of the Bengalese (_Chickrassia tabularis_, A. de Juss.), is a powerful astringent, but, like the Toon bark, devoid of bitterness.

OXALIDACEÆ.

AVERRHOA BILIMBI, _Linn._

A syrup prepared with the juice of the excessively acid gherkin-like fruits of the Bilimbi is used by the native doctors in the treatment of fevers, as also is a conserve of the flowers. The Bilimbi is a small tree, with unequally pinnate leaves, which, like those of the well-known sensitive plant, are irritable and close their leaflets together when touched. Its fruits are commonly used for pickling by Europeans, both in the East and in the West Indies.

XANTHOXYLACEÆ.

TODDALIA ACULEATA, _Pers._ (= _Scopolia aculeata_, Smith).

Powerful stimulating properties are ascribed to all parts of this plant. The fresh bark of its root is administered by the Telinga physicians, who call the plant "Conda cashinda," for the cure of the kind of remittent fever known by the name of "hill fever," from its being caught in the jungles of the Indian hills. It is a moderately tall shrub with prickly stems and branches, alternate, trifoliate, smooth leaves marked with numberless pellucid dots, and usually having prickles on their stalks and on the midribs of the leaflets; and its flowers, which are whitish and strong scented, are borne in simple or compound racemes. Its Cinghalese name is "Koodoomirris-wel."

SIMARUBACEÆ.

SAMADERA INDICA, _Gaertn._

All parts of this tree partake of the excessively bitter qualities common to the order. The decoction of the rasped wood has recently been extensively and successfully employed in Ceylon, in the treatment of intermittent fever, and is recommended to be given in combination with Myrobalan galls. The wood is of a pale colour, resembling quassia-wood, and is very light. The tree is indigenous to Ceylon, and also to the Indian peninsula, and is the "Karin-njotti" of Rheede. It attains a considerable size, and has oblong-elliptical, alternate leaves, and long, pendulous, compressed flower-stalks, divided at the top into a many-flowered umbel. The bark, called "Niepa bark," also possesses febrifugal properties.

RHAMNACEÆ.

ZIZYPHUS JUJUBA, _Lam._ (= _Rhamnus Jujuba_, Linn.)

The root of this common Indian tree is a reputed febrifuge, and an infusion of it, combined with some warm seed, is said to be employed as such in the Moluccas, while the bark is used in diarrhœa. It is a small tree, with prickly branches, usually having the spines in pairs, and elliptical or oblong obtuse leaves, covered on the under side, as also are the branches, with dense short tawny tomentum, and it bears small greenish-yellow flowers, which produce roundish, yellow, edible fruits about the size of cherries. Its Sanscrit name is "Vadari," and its Bengalese "Kool."

LEGUMINOSÆ.

CASSIA FISTULA, _Linn._ (= _Cathartocarpus Fistula_, Pers.).

The black, sweet-tasted pulp contained in the long cylindrical pipe-like pods of this common tropical plant is well known as a gentle laxative medicine; and its roots are reputed to be an excellent febrifuge. It is the "Sonali" of the Bengalese, the "Amultas" of the Hindus, and the "Ahalla" of the Cinghalese, and is a moderately large tree, with very long pinnate leaves, and loose drooping racemes of bright-yellow fragrant flowers.

GUILANDINA BONDUCELLA, _Linn._ (= _Cæsalpinia Bonducella_, Fleming).

The seeds and bark, but particularly the former, have an intensely bitter taste, and are supposed to possess powerful tonic virtues. The seeds, called Bonduc nuts, are lead or ash coloured and most excessively hard. Their cotyledons, powdered and combined with spices or other medicinal substances, are prescribed with beneficial results in intermittent fever. The root is also said to be a good tonic in dyspeptic complaints; in fact, all parts of the plant are reputed to possess medicinal properties. The plant is a prickly, trailing shrub, with abruptly twice-pinnate leaves, each pinna consisting of from five to eight pairs of oval leaflets, and bears racemes of rusty-yellow flowers. The Tamuls call it "Kalichikai;" the Telingas "Getsakaia;" the Hindus "Cat-caleyi" and "Natacaranja;" and the Cinghalese "Koombooroo-wel." It is a common plant throughout the tropics of both hemispheres.

PHASEOLUS TRILOBUS, _Roth._ (= _Dolichos trilobus_, Linn.).

Ainslie says that "this plant was brought to Dr. F. Hamilton in Bahar, where he was informed by the Vytians of that district that the fresh herb was given in decoction in cases of irregular fever." It is a procumbent, spreading, herbaceous plant, with leaves composed of three roundish, entire, or three-lobed leaflets on long stalks, and bears a few pea-like flowers at the ends of long ascending stalks.

ORMOCARPUM SENNOIDES, _D. C._ (= _Hedysarum sennoides_, Willd.).

A shrub with glutinous hairy shoots, unequally pinnate leaves, and short axillary racemes bearing a few pea-like flowers, producing jointed pods. The decoction of the roots of this shrub, which is called "Caat Morungie" in the Tamul language, and "Adivie moonaga" in Telinga, is prescribed by the native physicians as a tonic and stimulant in fevers, and a liniment made of the powdered bark and sesamum oil is applied externally in paralysis and lumbago.

COMBRETACEÆ.

TERMINALIA TOMENTOSA, _W. et A._ (= _Terminalia alata_, Roth.).

This is a large tree with deeply-cracked bark, and nearly opposite, linear, oblong, obtuse leaves, somewhat cordate at the base, crenulate, and clothed with pubescence underneath. It is the "Peea-sal" or "Usan" of the Bengalese; the "Nella madoo" of the Telingas; and the "Aans" of the Hindus. The reddish-brown, cracked bark has a strong but not unpleasant astringent taste, and is classed amongst the febrifuge medicines by the native doctors: powdered and mixed with oil it is employed in apthæ.

MYRTACEÆ.

SYZYGIUM CARYOPHYLLIFOLIUM, _D. C._ (= _Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia_, Willd.).

"Nawel" of the Tamuls; "Nereddie" of the Telingas; and "Madang" of the Cinghalese. The thick, brownish-coloured bark of this tree has an astringent, slightly aromatic taste, and a decoction of it is sometimes prescribed by native doctors in fevers and bowel complaints, and is also employed as a wash for foul ulcers. It has been recommended as a tanning substance, but it does not possess sufficient astringency to render it suitable for that purpose. The tree has smooth, entire leaves of an oblong-lanceolate shape and attenuated at the base, and bears cymose panicles of flowers upon the old branches, producing little edible fruits about the size of peas.

BARRINGTONIACEÆ.

BARRINGTONIA RACEMOSA, _Roxb._ (= _Eugenia racemosa_, Linn.).

"Cadapum" (Tam.); "Kamtee" (Tel.); and "Deya-midella" (Cing.). Ainslie says that the reddish-coloured bark of the Cadapum is supposed to possess virtues similar to those of Chinchona bark. Medicinal properties are also ascribed to the root and seed, both of which have a bitter though not unpleasant taste. It is a large tree, with cuneate-oblong, acuminate, serrulate leaves, crowded together towards the ends of the branches, and long pendulous racemes of large flowers, producing ovate, bluntly quadrangular fruits.

CUCURBITACEÆ.

ZANONIA INDICA, _Linn._

Mr. Thwaites says that the Cinghalese value this plant as a febrifuge, and call it "Wal-rasakinda." It is also found in India, and is the "Penar-valli" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus. The plant is a climber, supporting itself by means of tendrils, and has alternate, elliptical, pointed leaves, slightly cordate at the base, and axillary racemes of flowers.

TRICHOSANTHES CUCUMERINA, _Linn._

This is another cucurbitaceous plant much used by the Cinghalese as a febrifuge, and from the experiments made with it in the hospitals at Badulla it appears to possess considerable efficacy. It is astringent and contains a bitter principle, which it yields to boiling water, and is therefore recommended to be used in the form of an infusion, made with the dried stem and leaves. The plant is called "Doommaala" by the Cinghalese, and is very common both in Ceylon and India. It is an annual climbing plant, with three-cleft tendrils, and broadly-cordate, angular or lobed leaves toothed along the edges. Its seeds are used in bowel complaints.

UMBELLIFERÆ.

HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA, _Linn._

The Asiatic Pennywort has recently been discovered to be a valuable remedy in leprosy, scrofula, venereal, and other complaints. The native doctors, however, have hitherto considered it serviceable only in bowel complaints and fevers, administering it in the form of an infusion of the toasted leaves in combination with fenugreek. It has a bitter, pungent, disagreeable taste, and when bruised gives off a peculiar offensive odour. The active principle of the plant is said to be due to a thick pale-yellow oil or extract, which has been called _Vellarine_, from the Tamul name of the plant, "Vullarei." Its Telinga name is "Babassa;" its Hindu, "Thulkura;" and its Cinghalese, "Heen-gotookola." By the latter people it is used as an anthelmintic. Though named _Asiatica_ by botanists, it is by no means confined to that continent, but is spread very generally throughout the tropics. It has creeping stems, and tufts of roundish kidney-shaped leaves.

CHINCHONACEÆ.

HYMENODYCTION EXCELSUM, _Wall._ (= _Cinchona excelsa_, Roxb.)

Roxburgh supposed this tree to belong to the same genus as the Peruvian barks, but no species of true _Chinchona_ has ever been found wild in the Eastern hemisphere. The present tree grows to a large size and yields a thick bark, the inner coatings of which possess the bitterness and astringency of the real Peruvian bark, especially when fresh; but the bitterness, though more durable, is not so quickly communicated to the taste. It is called "Bundaroo" by the Telingas.

COMPOSITÆ.

VERBESINA CINEREA, _Less._ (= _Conyza cinerea_, Linn.).

A low-growing annual plant, widely spread throughout the tropics of the old world, and considered by the Hindus to possess medicinal virtues, a decoction of the entire herb being administered in febrile affections in order to promote perspiration. It is the "Seera shengalaneer" of the Tamuls, and the "Gherutti Kamma" of the Telingas.

AUCKLANDIA COSTUS, _Falc._

In an elaborate memoir upon this plant, Dr. Falconer has shown it to be the source of the celebrated "Costus" of the ancients, which was previously referred to the _Costus Arabicus_, Linn. (= _Costus speciosus_, Sm.), a plant belonging to the order _Zingiberaceæ_. It is a gregarious herbaceous plant with a perennial root sending up annual erect stems six or seven feet high, bearing large, somewhat lyrate pinnatifid leaves. Costus-root is collected in large quantities in Cashmere, but the only use made of it there is for perfuming bales of shawls, and thus protecting them from insects, the great bulk of it being exported to China and Persia, in both of which countries it is highly esteemed as a medicine, the Persian doctors regarding it as an efficacious remedy in nearly all the ills human nature is heir to. Ainslie says that the native practitioners in India prescribe an infusion of it as a stomachic and tonic, and also in the advanced stages of typhus fever. In Cashmere it is called "Koot," which agrees with the Arabic "Koost:" in Bengal it is known by the name of "Putchuk."

EMILIA SONCHIFOLIA, _D. C._ (= _Cacalia sonchifolia_, Linn.).

"Shudimudi" of the Bengalese, or "Kadoo-para" of the Cinghalese. An annual, with erect or spreading, branching stems, and variously shaped leaves, the lower ones being usually lyrate, and the upper more or less amplexicaul, with blunt or sharp auricles. On the Malabar coast the native practitioners, according to Rheede, consider a decoction of this plant to possess antifebrile qualities.

EBENACEÆ.

DIOSPYROS EMBRYOPTERIS, _Pers._ (= _Embryopteris glutinifera_, Roxb.).

An American species of _Diospyros_ (_D. Virginiana_, Linn.) is employed as a febrifuge by rustic practitioners in the United States, and O'Shaughnessy states that the bark of the present tree has been given in India, but with doubtful results, in the treatment of intermittent fevers. It is well known as the Gaub-tree, and the viscid, excessively astringent juice of its fruit is used for tanning, and for paying the seams of boats. It is a middle-sized tree, with long elliptic-lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, and whitish flowers.

APOCYNACEÆ.

OPHIOXYLON SERPENTINUM, _Willd._

"Chivan amelpodi" in Tamul; "Chota Chand" in Hindostanee; "Chandra" in Bengalee; "Patalganni" in Telinga; and "Aikawaireya" in Cinghalese. The root of the Chandra is very bitter, and is administered by the Telinga and also by the Javanese doctors in the form of a decoction, as a remedy in fever cases. It is one of the numberless supposed remedies for the bites of venomous snakes, but, as in many other similar instances, its virtues are fanciful, and its great reputation is probably ascribable to the old doctrine of _signatures_, the plant being a climber and having a twining stem.

WRIGHTIA ANTIDYSENTERICA, _R. Br._ (= _Nerium antidysentericum_, Linn.).

The bark of this species of _Wrightia_ is included in some European works on Materia Medica under the name of Tellicherry or Conessi bark. It has long enjoyed a high reputation in India as a tonic and febrifuge; but other parts of the plant likewise appear to possess similar properties, a decoction of the long oat-like seeds being employed in ardent fever. The bark is also given in dysentery. Among the Tamuls it goes by the name of "Veppalei," while the Hindus call it "Curayia," and the Telingas "Pala codija." It is a small tree producing a white ivory-like wood, which has been tried for engraving purposes, but found unsuitable on account of it not being of even quality throughout. It has obovate-oblong, shortly acuminate, smooth leaves, and nearly terminal corymbs of jasmine-like flowers.

ASCLEPIADACEÆ.

CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA, _R. Br._ (= _Asclepias gigantea_, Linn.).

Various parts of the Yercum-plant have long been employed for medicinal purposes by the native doctors, and experiments made by Anglo-Indian practitioners have proved that the inner bark of the root, called Mudar bark, is a valuable remedy in leprosy, and that it may also be given with advantage in several other complaints, including intermittent and other fevers. An elastic gum and a valuable fibre are also obtained from the plant. There are two varieties of Yercum, one with white and the other with purple flowers, the former forming a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, and the latter a shrub.

LOGANIACEÆ.

STRYCHNOS NUX-VOMICA, _Linn._

According to Roxburgh the exceedingly bitter wood of the Nux Vomica is employed as a remedy in fevers of the intermittent kind, and also for the cure of snake-bites, when that of the next species cannot be obtained. The poisonous bark is commonly sold in the Indian bazaars in place of the febrifuge "Rohuna bark," which is in reality the produce of _Soymida febrifuga_. It is the false Angostura bark of our Materia Medica. Nux Vomica seeds have also been administered with some benefit in intermittent fever. The _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_ forms a small tree, has oval, entire, shining leaves, strongly marked with from three to five longitudinal nerves, and bears small corymbs of greenish-white flowers.

STRYCHNOS COLUBRINA, _Linn._

The "Naga musadi" of the Telingas, or "Koochilaluta" of the Bengalese. The wood of this species is greatly esteemed by the natives as a remedy for snake-bites, and is also given in cases of intermittent fever. It is a climbing shrub with thick woody tendrils, elliptic-oblong, blunt-pointed, three-nerved leaves, and small corymbs of yellowish flowers.

GENTIANACEÆ.

OPHELIA CHIRATA, _Griseb._ (= _Gentiana Chirayta_, Roxb., and _Agathotes Chirayta_, Don.).

The name "Chirata" or "Chirayta," by which this plant is commonly known in India, is derived from the Sanscrit "Kirataticta." The dried stems of the Chirata have long been famed amongst the natives of India as a tonic and febrifuge; and they have also gained considerable reputation amongst European practitioners in India, who, however, have found them to be more efficacious in the cure of intermittent fever when employed in combination with the seeds of the _Guilandina Bonducella_, mentioned above. It is an annual plant, two or three feet high, with smooth round stems and opposite, ovate or somewhat cordate, acuminate leaves, marked with from five to seven nerves, and bears yellow flowers. Chirata is included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia.

OPHELIA ANGUSTIFOLIA, _Don._ (= _Swertia angustifolia_, Ham.).

The stems of this species are called "Pukaree Chirata" in the Himalayas, and are substituted for the true Chirata. The species is distinguished by its stems being somewhat four-sided, by its much narrower, sharper-pointed, obscurely three-nerved, short-stalked leaves, and by its white, violet-spotted flowers. Both this and the true Chirata are natives of the Himalayas.

OPHELIA ELEGANS, _Wight._

It has recently been discovered that the stems of this South Indian species are made up into bundles in the same manner as the Himalayan Chiratas, with which they have hitherto been confounded in the bazaars. The plant, however, has a different native name, being called "Salaras" or "Salajit" by the inhabitants of the Pulney hills; but it is considered equally efficacious as a febrifuge. It has obsoletely four-sided stems, narrow, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, three-nerved leaves, tapering to a slender point, and beautiful pale-blue flowers.

SALVADORACEÆ.

SALVADORA, _sp._

A decoction of the bark of a species of _Salvadora_ is recommended by Hindu doctors in cases of low fever, and as a tonic. Great confusion, however, exists among the species of this genus, and it is therefore uncertain which one is thus employed. Ainslie mentions _Salvadora Persica_, but it is very doubtful whether that species is found in any part of India.

CORDIACEÆ.

CORDIA MYXA, _Linn._

Tonic and febrifuge properties are ascribed to the bark of this tree, it being, according to Horsfield, one of the chief remedies used in fevers by the Javanese, who call it "Kendal." It is a small tree with rounded branches, ovate leaves, smooth on the upper surface but roughish underneath, and usually terminal panicles of flowers, producing yellow, sweet-tasted pulpy fruits about the size of cherries. In the Tamul language it is called "Vidi marum;" "Nekra" in Telinga; "Lesura" in Hindostanee; and "Loloo" in Cinghalese.

SOLANACEÆ.

SOLANUM XANTHOCARPUM, _Schrad. et Wendl._ (= _Solanum Jacquini_, Willd.).

There are two varieties of this plant, one of which was formerly considered a distinct species, and named _Solanum Jacquini_. All parts of the latter variety are used medicinally, and it is one of the fever remedies employed by the Cinghalese, who call it "Kattoo-wel-battoo." It is a decumbent, spreading annual plant, armed with numerous long white prickles, and has sinuately-pinnatifid prickly leaves. The Tamuls call it "Kandung Kattiri."

SCROPHULARIACEÆ.

PICRORHIZA KURROOA, _Royle._

A small perennial herbaceous plant found in Kemaon, at Gossain-than, and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, where its roots, which are called "Hooling" in Tibet, and have a powerful bitter taste, are used as a febrifuge by the natives, and also sent down to the bazaars of Bengal, where they form one of the many bitter roots sold under the name of "Teeta." The plant grows about six inches high, and has scarcely any stem, its leaves all rising from the summit of the thick root, and also its flower-stalks, which are five or six inches high, and bear a dense spike of small bluish flowers at the top.

HERPESTIS MONNIERIA, _Humb._ (= _Gratiola Monnieria_, Linn.)

The Cinghalese consider this plant to possess febrifuge virtues: they call it "Loonoo Weela." In India its expressed juice is mixed with petroleum, and used as a topical application in rheumatism. It is a little creeping plant, common in moist places throughout the tropics of both hemispheres, and has obovate-cuneate leaves, bearing solitary long-stalked pale-blue flowers in their axils. The Bengalese call it "Adha birni," and the Telingas "Sambrani-chittoo."

ACANTHACEÆ.

ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA, _Nees ab Essen._ (= _Justicia paniculata_, Burm.).

This is the celebrated Creyat, the principal ingredient in the famous bitter tincture called _drogue amère_, so highly esteemed in India for its tonic and stomachic properties, and also as a febrifuge. The entire plant is employed, the intensely bitter principle being found in all parts of it. It is an annual, with stiff quadrangular stems from one to two feet high, bearing smooth lanceolate leaves, attenuated at the base. In the Telinga language it is called "Nella vemoo;" in Bengalese, "Kala-megh;" in Hindustanee, "Calapnath;" and in Tamul, "Kiriat," hence the common Indian name of the plant, Creat or Creyat.

JUSTICIA ADHATODA, _Linn._ (= _Adhatoda Vasica_, Nees ab Essen.)

The flowers, leaves, and roots have a bitterish and somewhat aromatic taste, and are supposed to possess antispasmodic properties. An infusion of them, especially of the flowers, is given to prevent the return of rigour in intermittent fever. In Ceylon it is used as an expectorant for children. The Bengalese call the plant "Bakus;" the Tamuls, "Adhatodey;" the Cinghalese, "Paawetta;" the Telingas, "Adasara;" and in Sanscrit it is called "Vasica" or "Uroos." It forms a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, with elliptic oblong leaves, attenuated to both ends, and pale-coloured flowers with purple stripes and rusty spots.

LABIATÆ.

OCIMUM SANCTUM, _Linn._

The Tamul physicians prescribe a decoction of the root of this common Indian species of Basil in fever cases, and the juice of the leaves in catarrhal affections. The Brahmins consider the plant sacred to Vishnu, and cultivate it in the vicinity of temples, while the Malays strew it upon the graves of their departed friends. The whole plant generally has a purplish tinge, and grows about a foot high: it has long-stalked, downy, oval leaves, toothed along the edges, and small pale-purple flowers. Its Tamul name is "Toolasee;" its Bengalese, "Kala-toolsee;" and its Cinghalese "Madooroo-tallu."

ANISOMELES MALABARICA, _R. Br._ (= _Nepeta Malabarica_, Linn.).

"Pemayrutie" of the Tamuls; "Moga beerakoo" of the Telingas; and "Bootan Kooshum" in Sanscrit. A shrub, 2 to 5 feet high, clothed with short tomentum, and having oblong-lanceolate leaves, narrowed at the base, and purplish flowers disposed in distant whorls. The leaves are bitter, astringent, and somewhat aromatic, and are given in infusion in the later stages of dysentery and in intermittent fevers. Patients suffering under the last-mentioned disease are also made to inhale the vapour rising from an infusion of the whole plant, in order to induce a copious perspiration.

GENIOSPORUM PROSTRATUM, _Benth._ (= _Ocimum prostratum_, Linn.).

A small herb used as a febrifuge by the natives of the Madras presidency. It has a prostrate stem and numerous hispid branches, bearing small oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves, and long spike-like racemes of very small flowers.

ROYLEA ELEGANS, _Wall._ (= _Phlomis calycina_, Roxb., and _Ballota cinerea_, Don.).

According to the late Dr. Royle, after whom the genus is named, this plant is employed as a febrifuge in the Himalayas, where it is called "Putkuroo." It is a much-branched, erect shrub from three to five feet high, having the branches clothed with ash-coloured tomentum, and bearing ovate, sharp-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves, slightly cordate at the base. Its flowers vary from white to pale-rose colour.

VERBENACEÆ.

PREMNA SERRATIFOLIA, _Linn._ (= _Premna integrifolia_, Linn.).

The warm, bitterish-tasted root of this plant is prescribed in decoction by the native practitioners as a gentle stomachic and cordial in fevers. It has an agreeable odour. The tree is called "Moonnee" by the Tamuls; "Ghebboonellie" by the Telingas; and "Middee-gass" by the Cinghalese. Its trunk and large branches are armed with spines, and its leaves are ovate or oval, entire or toothed towards the top, of a shining green above and paler underneath.

VITEX TRIFOLIA, _Linn._

Different parts of this plant are employed medicinally, in various ways and for various diseases, by native doctors in India and also in Java. The part used as a remedy for intermittent fever is the leaves, which are powdered and taken in water. Pillows stuffed with them are used to cure cold in the head, and headache. It is a decumbent shrub, with the branches, under side of the leaves, and inflorescence mealy-white. There are two varieties: one with trifoliate and the other with simple leaves. Its Tamul name is "Neer-noochie;" its Telinga, "Neela vavilie;" and its Hindustanee, "Nisindha," or "Seduari."

VITEX NEGUNDO, _Linn._

This species is considered to have medicinal properties similar to but weaker than the last. The decoction of the root has a pleasant bitter taste, and is administered in cases of intermittent and typhus fever. In Tamul it is called "Noochie;" in Telinga, "Wayalakoo;" in Hindustanee, "Nisunda;" and in Cinghalese, "Sooddoo-nikka." It is a more erect shrub than the last, and its leaves are all compound, consisting of from three to five entire or toothed or deeply pinnatifid leaflets, covered with white meal underneath, as also are the branches and flowers.

NYCTAGINACEÆ.

BOERHAAVIA DIFFUSA, _Linn._ (= _Boerhaavia procumbens_, Roxb.).

The roots of several species of _Boerhaavia_ are employed medicinally by the natives of various parts of the world. In India those of the present have the reputation of being antifebrile, and Ainslie also says that the native practitioners include them amongst their laxative medicines. This plant is a herbaceous perennial with decumbent, smooth, or rarely pubescent stems and leaves, the latter varying very much in shape. Among the Bengalese it is known by the name of "Gadha-poorna;" and it is the "Pittasooddopala" of the Cinghalese. Its leaves are eaten as a potherb.

EUPHORBIACEÆ.

TRAGIA CANNABINA, _Willd._

"Sirroo canchorie" in the Tamul; and "Doolya-gunda" in the Telinga language. The root of this plant has a pleasant odour when fresh: the native doctors consider it to possess diaphoretic and alterative qualities, and they prescribe an infusion of it in ardent fever. It is an erect shrub, about four feet high, with hispid stems and leaves, the latter being divided into three sinuated lobes. Roxburgh says that the hairs on this plant sting as bad as those of the common nettle.

PIPERACEÆ.

CHAVICA BETLE, _Miq._ (= _Piper Betle_, Linn.).

This affords the celebrated Betle leaves, so extensively employed as a masticatory in the East. Ainslie says that the warm juice of the leaves is prescribed by the native doctors as a febrifuge, in the quantity of a small spoonful twice daily.

PIPER NIGRUM, _Linn._

Black pepper has long been known to possess febrifuge powers: an infusion of it in some kind of spirit is a popular remedy for preventing the return of the paroxysms in intermittent fevers. The root, however, is the part used by the native doctors in India, and is administered in the form of a decoction. _Piperin_, one of the constituents of pepper, has been said to be a more certain and speedy febrifuge than the chinchona alkaloids, but O'Shaughnessy says that after repeated and careful trials he found it was not of the least utility. The Tamul name of the plant is "Shuvium."

ZINGIBERACEÆ.

CURCUMA LONGA, _Linn._

The uses of the various kinds of Turmeric for dyeing purposes and as a condiment, particularly for the preparation of curry-powder, are well known, both in this country and to the natives of India; but the latter consider that it also possesses medicinal virtues, and give it as a stimulant and tonic in intermittent fever and some other diseases. European practitioners at one time regarded it as useful in jaundice.

LILIACEÆ.

ALLIUM SATIVUM, _Linn._

Ainslie says that the Hindus express a stimulating oil from common garlic, which they prescribe internally in ague to prevent the recurrence of the paroxysms, and use externally in paralytic and rheumatic affections. Garlic is called "Vullay poondoo" in Tamul; "Lassun" in Hindostanee; and "Lasuna" in Sanscrit.

ORONTIACEÆ.

ACORUS CALAMUS, _Linn._

The rhizomes of the common Sweet-Flag are well known in some parts of England as a cure for ague, and the natives of the East are well aware of their virtues in this respect. Indian practitioners also reckon it valuable in the "indigestions, stomach-aches, and bowel affections of children," so much so, indeed, that, according to Ainslie, "there is a penalty incurred by any druggist who will not open his door in the middle of the night and sell it if demanded." The Bengalese call it "Shwet buch;" the Cinghalese, "Wadakaha;" and the Hindus, "Bach."

POTHOS SCANDENS, _Linn._

The native practitioners use this plant in putrid fevers. It is an epiphyte with slender rooting stems adhering to the branches of trees like ivy, and has entire, lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, tapering upwards to a point and blunt and rounded at the base, where they are articulated with the winged stalk.

GRAMINACEÆ.

ANDROPOGON MURICATUS, _Retz._

The fragrant aromatic roots of this grass, called Cuscus or Vetivert, are only employed for perfumery purposes in this country, but in India they are well known as the material of which window and door screens are made, and the native doctors, moreover, consider them to possess medicinal virtues, prescribing an infusion of them as a diaphoretic and gentle stimulant in some kinds of fever. "Vittie" is the Tamul name of the plant, and "Vayr" in the same language signifies _root_, and, by combining and corrupting these, Europeans have formed the word _Vetivert_; while its other European name, Cuscus, is derived from the Persian "Khus-Khus." In Hindustanee it is called "Useer;" and in Sanscrit "Viratara."

ANDROPOGON IWARANCUSA, _Roxb._

The natives administer an infusion of the roots of this grass, combined with pepper, in fevers, of both the continued and intermittent kind. It has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, and fragrant odour. The specific name is derived from the Bengalee and Hindustanee, which is variously spelt "Ibharankusha," "Iwarankusha," "Kurankusha," or "Iwarancussa."

ANDROPOGON CALAMUS-AROMATICUS, _Royle_.

According to Royle, this is the κάλαμος ἀραματικός of the ancient Greeks, and the Sweet-cane or Calamus of the Bible. When chewed it has a strong taste of ginger, whence it is commonly called Ginger-grass. The native doctors give an infusion of it as a stomachic and febrifuge; and they also prepare from it a very fragrant aromatic oil, which they esteem very highly as a liniment in chronic rheumatism. This is sent to this country as grass-oil, or ginger-grass oil, and is sold by our perfumers as oil of geranium or spikenard.

APPENDIX D.

REPORT ON THE CULTIVATION OF CHINCHONAS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. BY WILLIAM G. McIVOR, ESQ., SUPERINTENDENT OF CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS.

_Rearing Seeds._--THE first sowing of imported seeds took place in the beginning of February 1860. No certain data being given for the treatment of Chinchona-seeds, our first operations were necessarily experimental, and a good number of seeds were lost by being sown in too retentive a soil, and supplied with what, to Chinchona-seeds, proved to be an excess of moisture; the greatest success we obtained in our first attempts was with the use of a soil composed almost entirely of burned earth, and of this sowing nearly sixty per cent. germinated, the temperature of the earth being about 70°. The number of days required before germination took place in the several sowings varied from sixty-two to sixty-eight. The seedlings made but little progress for the first six weeks, but after that time they sprung into rapid growth, averaging from 1-1/4 to 2 inches per mensem.

Seeds of the valuable Chinchona Condaminea, received on the 16th February 1862, were sown on the same day in a very light open soil composed of a beautifully open sort of sand, with a very small admixture of leaf-mould. Our experience with the first seeds having established beyond all doubt that the Chinchonas are very impatient of any excess of moisture, particular care was taken in the preparation of the soil used in this sowing. The earth was in the first instance exposed to the sun for two or three days and thoroughly dried, it was then heated to about 212° in order to destroy all grubs or larva of insects; after being allowed to cool, it was brought into the potting-shed and watered sufficiently to make it moist, but only to that degree of moisture that the particles of soil would not adhere together on being pressed firmly with the hand, that is, the earth on being laid down was sufficiently dry to break and fall into its usual form. With the soil in this state the pots were filled, the surface lightly pressed down, and the seeds sown thereon, being lightly covered with a sprinkling of sand. The pots were then placed on a slight bottom heat of about 72°. These were never watered in the strict sense of the word; when the surface got dry they were slightly sprinkled with a fine syringe just sufficient to damp the surface, but never to penetrate the soil. Under this treatment the seeds began to germinate very vigorously on the sixteenth day after sowing, and now, 17th March 1862, or twenty-nine days after sowing, upwards of sixty per cent. of the whole of the perfect seeds sown have germinated, and we may fairly hope to rear over ninety per cent. of this sowing. I may, however, observe that these seeds possessed the great advantage of being forwarded to India in a letter, and thus they were never subjected to the damaging effects produced on seeds sent out in air-tight parcels. The reason of this is the want of a circulation of air through the packets, and a consequent deposit of moisture on the interior of the outer covering by every increase and decrease of temperature on the voyage. As soon as the seeds germinate they are carefully pricked out into fresh pots (the soil being prepared as before described for the seeds). This must of course be done with very great care, the radicle being carefully covered with soil, while the seed and cotyledons are kept above the surface. In this way about twenty-five seedlings are transplanted into a four-inch pot, and treated in every respect the same as the seeds; that is, they are never watered, the soil being merely sprinkled as before stated to keep it in that medium state of moisture in which it was first put into the pots. This prevents the damping off of the seedlings, to which they are very liable when treated otherwise; it also greatly facilitates their growth and the formation of roots, the soil being so perfectly open that it is readily affected by the atmosphere, and thus kept in the most favourable condition for promoting vegetation. When treated in this way our seedlings have made an average growth in ten months of over eighteen inches, the growth being much more rapid towards the end of the ten months than in the earlier stages.

_Propagation._--As soon as the seedlings and imported plants attained sufficient size, they were propagated by being layered; in this way it was found that they rooted readily in about six weeks or two months, and threw out shoots from every bud; and not only this, but many latent buds were developed, and a fine growth of young wood produced for succeeding layers and cuttings. The principle of layering, being so well known to English gardeners, requires no detail; but in the Chinchona-plants it was found that the layers were very liable to _bleed_, and this not only weakened the plants but retarded the formation of roots; this we found to be remedied in a great degree by inserting in the cut a triangular piece of perfectly dry broken porous brick. An abundance of young wood being produced, we proceeded to propagate by cuttings, the earth being prepared with great care, the same as for the seeds, with the exception of not being heated. The ends of the cuttings are placed upon pieces of perfectly dry porous brick, around the sides of the pots. They are then placed on a bottom heat of 75° or 80°; and, with this treatment, young and tender wood roots in about three weeks or one month, older wood in about six weeks to two months. With cuttings of the young wood our loss has not exceeded two per cent., and with older wood about ten per cent.

Our object being to produce the largest number of plants in the shortest possible space of time, it was found that cuttings and layers required more wood than could be conveniently spared, and it was resolved to try the propagation by buds; in this respect the success has been most satisfactory. The secret of success entirely lies in the amount of moisture given; if in excess, they rot immediately, but, if sufficient care is exercised in reference to moisture, the losses will not exceed three or four per cent. Six C. Calisaya buds put in on the 30th January all rooted in forty-one days. It may be observed that it is not necessary that a leaf should be attached to the bud: this is no doubt an advantage, although we have struck many buds of the red bark without leaves, and also a few of the Calisayas.

It ought to be explained that the reason why the earth is brought to a medium state of moisture before being put into the pots is because it is never afterwards watered to such an extent as to render it really wet, being in fact just kept in that state of moisture in which it was originally placed in the pots, and this uniform and medium state of moisture is more easily retained by the pots being plunged in beds of earth. The reason why we found this system necessary was, that, when the soil was watered in the usual way after the seedlings or cuttings were placed in it, it was found, from its expansion and adhesion by the action of the water, that its particles were forced far too close together to be beneficial to the growth of the plants, and in many instances this proved to be injurious, vastly retarding their growth.

In the nurseries in the open air the same principle of cultivation and propagation as that described above has been adopted, and, with reference to the condition of the plants and layers, with nearly equal success, the period of rooting of the layers being from two months to ten weeks, while cuttings take from two to three months, the average loss being about fifteen per cent.: this occurs from the impossibility, in the open air, of keeping a uniform state of the atmosphere around the cuttings. With layers this is not so important, as they root quite as surely (though slower) as in the propagating-houses, and flourish equally well.

_Formation of Plantations._--The mode of cultivation of these plants likely to prove the most advantageous being uncertain, it was resolved in May and June of 1861 to place out a number of plants under different conditions of shade, exposure, &c., and the result has been that the plants placed without the protection of living shade have made the most satisfactory progress, and borne the dry season without the least injury. The plants placed under living shade were found to be damaged in some degree during the rains by the incessant drip, but on the weather clearing up they threw out new leaves and quickly recovered. Nine months after planting, or at the end of our dry season, these plants were found to be suffering considerably from the drought; and on taking a few of them up, it was found that the holes in which these Chinchonas were planted had become entirely filled by the fibres of the roots of the living trees in their neighbourhood, which had drawn up the whole of the moisture and nourishment from the soil in which the Chinchona-plants were placed. In putting the plants out, which were placed in the open, we of course saw from the first that with the young plants we had to combat the bad effects of excessive evaporation during our dry season, under a bright and scorching sun; we also saw the injury likely to be done to the plants by radiation during bright and cloudless nights. To obviate these disadvantages the plants were sheltered on the approach of the dry season by a rough enclosure of bamboo-branches, with the leaves adhering to them, so as to give them sufficient shade both from the effects of evaporation and radiation. The enclosure is left open on the north side, and enclosed on the south, east, and west; the sun's declination being south during the dry weather. The ground will not be impoverished by the roots of other trees, and the whole of its nourishment is preserved for the Chinchona-plants. At the same time they will, by this treatment, be far more efficiently protected from evaporation and radiation than they would be by the use of living shade, whether caused by forest-trees or by the admixture of faster-growing plants. In addition to this shade of the branches of cut bamboos, the soil around the roots of some of the young Chinchona-plants was covered one or two inches in thickness with half-decayed leaves, and the plants thus treated show a very great luxuriance, which is not exceeded by any of the plants in our propagating-houses. To ascertain the cause of this luxuriance a few of the plants were recently examined, and although at the end of the dry season the soil about the roots was found to be perfectly moist; thousands of young rootlets of great strength were found to have been thrown into the covering of decayed leaves, so that it had become one matted mass of beautiful white roots, many of them nearly the thickness of a crow-quill. On the strength of these observations we have resolved to place out this season seventy-five acres of Chinchona-plants in cleared land, and exactly under the conditions and treatment last described; we also propose planting seventy-five acres under various degrees of living shade, in which every attempt will be made to mitigate as much as possible the injurious effects of this system already described. The cultivation of these plants being experimental, it is necessary that we should give every method of cultivation which appears reasonable a fair trial, and that only developed facts should influence us in giving preference to one method of cultivation over that of another. The distances at which we have prepared to place the plants are for the larger growing species from nine to ten feet apart, for the sorts of medium size eight feet, and for the shrubby sorts seven feet: these distances are of course too close to admit of the plants attaining a full size, but we believe that it will be advantageous to plant them close in the first instance, and thin them out afterwards. In order to illustrate the extreme growth of our plants, it is worthy of note that one or two of them, although not yet twelve months old, have attained a height of about five feet by three and a half feet in diameter through the branches; we may therefore conclude that the plants will in about two years fairly cover the ground if placed at the distances given above. When they begin to crowd and impede the growth of each other they will of course be thinned out and pruned; and it is anticipated that a good supply of bark may be obtained by these means in from eight to twelve years, or perhaps earlier.

_Ootacamund, 19th March, 1862._

* * * * *

P.S. On the 5th of April the seeds of _C. Condaminea_ were coming up plentifully, and 4193 seedlings had already been transplanted. 100 seedlings of _C. crispa_ had also come up. The seeds of _C. Condaminea_ were coming up at the rate of 500 a-day. At this date there were 25,000 Chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry hills, and all the species, except _C. lancifolia_, were increasing rapidly. It will be some time before Mr. McIvor will be able to propagate from the latter species, owing to the very unhealthy state in which the plants arrived from Java. In April 50 acres of ground were prepared for planting at the Dodabetta site, and 70 acres at Neddiwuttum.

APPENDIX E.

NOTE ON THE EXPORT TRADE IN PERUVIAN BARK FROM THE PORTS OF SOUTH AMERICA, AND ON THE IMPORT TRADE INTO ENGLAND.

ARICA, the port for the "_Calisaya_" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the export of bark amounted to 192,600 lbs., valued at 17,334_l._; and between January and November, 1860, to 388,800 lbs., valued at 35,000_l._

ISLAY, another port for the "_Calisaya_" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the export of bark amounted to 146,000 lbs., valued at 13,460_l._ (of which 136,500 lbs. went to England, and 9500 lbs. to France); and between January and November, 1860, to 107,700 lbs., valued at 9770_l._

PAYTA, the port for the "_Crown_" barks from Loxa. The price of bark at this port for the last nine years has been twenty-four dollars the cwt.; but during the last year the price has risen to thirty dollars, where it is likely to remain for some time. The usual annual export amounts to 140,000 lbs., the actual quantity shipped in 1861, and it is valued at 8400_l._

GUAYAQUIL, the port for the "_Red_" bark and the "_West Coast Carthagena_" bark. The quantity exported varies very much in different years, the price being at present about twenty dollars the cwt. In 1857 the export of bark amounted to 516,600 lbs.; in 1858 to 533,300 lbs.; in 1859 to 201,700 lbs.; in 1860 to 91,500 lbs.; and in 1861 to 443,700 lbs.; valued in the last of these years at 17,748_l._

The "_Grey_" barks were exported, in former years, from CALLAO, and in small quantities from HUANCHACO and LAMBAYEQUE, but of late years none has been exported.

The "_Carthagena_" barks from New Granada are exported from the ports of CARTHAGENA and SANTA MARTHA, and also from the little port of TUMACO on the Pacific coast. From 1849 to 1855 great quantities were exported, but in the latter year the supply began to fail. The existing civil war in New Granada has still further injured this trade. No reliable account of the export of bark from the above ports of New Granada has been received.

From the four ports of ARICA, ISLAY, PAYTA, and GUAYAQUIL the average amount of bark annually exported may be taken at 912,900 lbs., valued at 59,076_l._ Small quantities may come from other ports, of which no authentic account has been obtained; so that the total amount annually exported from South America may be estimated at considerably over 2,000,000 lbs.

There being no duty on the importation of Peruvian bark into England, the returns of the amount imported are much less carefully kept than was formerly the case. The returns, too, are in packages, and not in lbs. or cwts., and these packages vary in weight from 120 lbs. to 60 lbs. The number of packages of Peruvian bark imported into England in 1858 was 19,831; in 1859 the number was 10,651; in 1860 it was 10,456; and in 1861 it was 20,748. Taking the average of the weight of the packages at 80 lbs. each, the quantity imported into England during the last four years would be 4,934,880 lbs., and in the year 1861 about 1,659,840 lbs.

The quantity of Peruvian bark imported into England during the three months ending on March 31st, 1861, was reported to be 306,300 lbs., and during the same period, in the present year, 310,700 lbs. At this rate the annual import would be a little over 1,200,000 lbs., which is probably more correct than the above estimate from the packages.

THE END.

LONDON: PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The only valid argument against this change is that it may cause confusion, but the alteration is too slight for this to be possible; and it is not uncommon, among botanists, to correct the usual spelling of genera or species of plants, when it is found to be erroneous. Among other examples of such changes may be enumerated those of _Plumeria_, now altered to _Plumieria_; _Bufonia_ to _Buffonia_; and _Gesneria_ to _Gesnera_.

[2] _See page 490._

[3] In Quichua, when the name of a plant is reduplicated, it almost invariably implies that it possesses some medicinal quality.

[4] La Condamine, Jussieu, and Ruiz all believed that the Indians were aware of the medicinal qualities of Peruvian bark, and that they imparted their knowledge to the Spaniards. Humboldt and Ulloa were of an opposite opinion. The stories of its virtues having been discovered by watching the pumas or South-American lions chewing the bark to cure their fevers, mentioned by Condamine; and of an Indian having found it out by drinking of the waters of a lake into which a chinchona-tree had fallen--told by Geoffroy--are of modern and European origin.

[5] Jussieu says that it is certain that the first knowledge of the efficacy of this bark was derived from the Indians of Malacotas, some leagues south of Loxa.--Weddell, _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 15.

[6] Poëppig, _Reise_.

[7] Mr. Spruce's _Report_, p. 25.

[8] The first Marquis of Astorga married Leonora, daughter of Don Fadrique Henriquez, Admiral of Spain, and sister of the Queen of Aragon, who was mother of King Ferdinand the Catholic: so that Ana was sixth cousin to her contemporary King Philip IV

[9] _Nobiliario genealogico de los Titulos de España, por Alonzo Lopez de Haro, Madrid, 1626._

[10] Alcedo.

[11] _Creacion y Privilegios de los Titulos de Castilla, por Don José Berni._ The Counts of Chinchon were hereditary Alcaides of the Alcazar of Segovia. In 1623 the Count of Chinchon here received Charles I. of England, and gave him a supper of "certaine trouts of extraordinary greatnesse." In 1764 the then Count of Chinchon ceded the Alcazar to the crown.

[12] A large supply of seeds of this kind has been sent to India and Ceylon.

[13] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_, No. 1.

[14] Sebastian Badus asserts that bark was brought to Alcala de Henares as early as 1632.--Humboldt's _Aspects_, ii. p. 268.

[15] I translated and edited Acuña's Voyage for the Hakluyt Society in 1859.

[16] _Disertacion por Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue._

[17] Torti's work, _De Febribus_, was published at Venice in 1732.

[18] _Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina_, par P. Briquet. Paris, 1856.

[19] _Voyage de Condamine_, p. 31.

[20] 1738, p. 226.

[21] _Noticias Secretas_, p. 572.

[22] _Semanario de la Nueva Granada_, p. 283.

[23] Endlicher separated the species whose capsules begin to open from the top, and formed them into a sub-genus, which he called _Cascarilla_. Klotzsch, combining these with other species characterised by a six-parted corolla, raised them to an independent genus called _Ladenbergia_.

[24] _Histoire naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 72.

[25] Dr. Weddell's list is as follows:--

1. C. CALISAYA (_Weddell_) Bolivia and Caravaya. 2. C. CONDAMINEA (_Humboldt_) Loxa. 3. C. SCROBICULATA (_Humboldt_) Peru. 4. C. AMYGDALIFOLIA (_Weddell_) Peru and Bolivia. 5. C. NITIDA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru. 6. C. AUSTRALIS (_Weddell_) Southern Bolivia. 7. C. BOLIVIANA (_Weddell_) Caravaya and Bolivia 8. C. MICRANTHA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) Peru and Bolivia. 9. C. PUBESCENS (_Vahl_) Peru and Bolivia. 10. C. CORDIFOLIA (_Mutis_) New Granada. 11. C. PURPURASCENS (_Weddell_) Bolivia. 12. C. OVATA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) Peru and Bolivia. 13. C. CHOMELIANA (_Weddell_) Bolivia. 14. C. GLANDULIFERA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru. 15. C. ASPERIFOLIA (_Weddell_) Bolivia. 16. C. HUMBOLDTIANA (_Lambert_) Jaen. 17. C. CARABAYENSIS (_Weddell_) Caravaya. 18. C. MUTISII (_Lambert_) Loxa. 19. C. HIRSUTA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru.

_Doubtful._

C. DISCOLOR (_Klotzsch_) N. Peru. C. PALALBA (_Pavon_) Peru.

[26] M. Delondre decided that the fruit and flowers, though having a bitter principle, did not contain the alkaloids, while the roots contained them, though in smaller proportion than the bark of the trunk and branches.

[27] Weddell.

[28] Briquet, p. 22.

[29] _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_, No. 10.

[30] _Aricine_, as a sulphate, does not crystallize, but forms a peculiar trembling jelly. It was so named from the port of Arica, whence the bark of _C. pubescens_ is exported.

[31] Pereira says that, if a substance suspected to contain _quina_ be powdered, then shaken with ether, and afterwards successively treated with chlorine and ammonia, the liquid will assume a green colour if the slightest trace of quina be present.--_Mat. Med._ ii. part ii. p. 119. One or two pounds of bark suffice well for an analysis.

[32] _Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina et de ses préparations_, par P. Briquet, Paris, 1855. Also Pereira's _Materia Medica_.

[33] The word _quinquina_ is generally adopted for the medical preparations which are taken from Peruvian bark. _Quina_ signifies _bark_ in Quichua, and _quinquina_ is a bark possessing some medicinal property. _Quinine_ is, of course, derived from _quina_, _chinchonine_ from _chinchona_. The Spaniards corrupted the word _quina_ into _china_; and in homœopathy the word _china_ is still retained. In 1735, when M. de la Condamine visited Peru, the native name of _quina-quina_ was almost entirely replaced by the Spanish term _cascarilla_, which also means bark.

[34] _Autobiography of Sir James MacGrigor_, chap. xii. p. 241.

[35] _Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales_, quoted by Delondre, p. 7.

[36] _Aspects_, ii. p. 267.

[37] _Semanario de la Nueva Granada._

[38] From Martius: a note in No. 1 of Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_.

[39] Some of these MSS. are, I believe, in possession of Don Pedro Carbo, of Guayaquil.

[40] Spanish edition of General Miller's _Memoirs_, i. p. 42.

[41] It is the form of _C. Condaminea_, represented in the unshaded branch with capsules, Plate x. of the _Plantes Equinoctiales_.

[42] It comes in very small quills, as if taken from a mere shrub.

[43] Besides _quinine_ several other febrifugal alkaloids are found in the chinchona barks, one of the most important of which is _chinchonidine_, discovered by Pasteur in 1852.

[44] I found some very beautiful dried specimens of this species in the botanical gardens at Madrid last year. The lanceolate leaves and panicles of flowers still retained their colour. They were marked "_Cascarilla fina de Uritusinga de Loxa, Quin. de Pavon_."

[45] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_.

[46] _Howard_, from MS. of Ruiz.

[47] Mr. Cross's _Report_, Nov. 1861.

[48] Pereira, _Materia Medica_, ii. p. 106.

[49] Afterwards published in a pamphlet of 57 pages, with plates.

[50] In 1856 Mr. Howard shared Dr. Weddell's belief that the "red bark" belonged to a variety of _C. ovata_.--_Pharmaceutical Journal_, Oct. 1856.

[51] Howard.

[52] With "red bark" another kind, known as "West coast Carthagena," is exported from Guayaquil. The name is absurd. Mr. Howard believes it to be derived from the _C. Palton_ of Pavon, which is found in the woods of Cuenca, and in the province of Loxa. Samples of this bark yield 2.05 of alkaloids, 1.34 of chinchonidine, and 0.7 of quinine.

[53] Alcedo.

[54] Mutis was born at Cadiz in 1732. He resided in South America for forty years, and corresponded with Linnæus. Dying in 1808, the greater portion of his papers was destroyed in the revolution at Bogota; but a part of his collection of dried plants is now in the botanical gardens at Madrid, in a disgraceful state of disorder.

[55] In 1776 Don Sebastian José Lopez Ruiz, a physician at Bogota, persuaded the Spanish government that he was the first discoverer of chinchona-trees in New Granada, and obtained a yearly pension of 2000 dollars as a reward; but he was afterwards considered to be an impostor, and the viceroy deprived him of it.

[56] The pupil and fellow-workman of Mutis, from whose notes he wrote.

[57] _Anales de la Historia Natural de Madrid_, 1800.

[58] _Floræ Columbiæ specimina selecta_, i. p. 21: Berlin, 1858. A superbly illustrated work by Dr. Karsten.

[59] _Die medicinischen Chinarinden Neu-Granadas_, von H. Karsten: Berlin, 1858. I have had this pamphlet translated for the use of those intrusted with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation in India and Ceylon. It contains a great deal of valuable information respecting the most favourable situations for the production of alkaloids in chinchona barks, and other particulars respecting the growth of the bark, and the methods of collecting it. Dr. Karsten is a careful observer and a scientific botanist and chemist, and his observations form a very important addition to our knowledge of this subject.

[60] _Report of the Administrador Don Ignacio Cavero, Semanario_, p. 183.

[61] 300 dried specimens, and 242 coloured drawings, sent in the ship 'Buen Consejo.'

[62] Namely:--

1. _C. lanceolata_ (_Cascarilla bobo amarillo_). 2. _C. purpurea_ ( " _de hoja morada_). 3. _C. ovata_ ( " _pata de gallareta_). 4. _C. nitida_ ( " _fino_). 5. _C. hirsuta_ ( " _fino delgado_). 6. _C. magnifolia_ {( " _flor de Azahar_). {( " _magnifolia--Wedd_). 7. _C. glandulifera_ ( " _negrilla_).

[63] I have examined Pavon's dried specimens from Huanuco, now in the botanical gardens at Madrid.

There are leaves of _C. lanceolata_, from the forests of Muña; leaves and capsules of _C. ovata_, some of the former very slightly cordate, from Panao and Pillao; leaves, flowers, and capsules of _C. purpurea_; and leaves and capsules of _C. nitida_, from Cuchero.

[64] Ruiz published his _Quinologia_ in 1792.

[65] At first, in the best years, as many as 25,000 arrobas of bark were exported from the province of Huanuco, and some large fortunes were made.--_Poeppig._ An arroba = 25 lbs.

[66] _Mercurio Peruano._

[67] A Peruvian who was for many years Director of the Cabinet of Natural History in Madrid, during the reign of Charles III.

[68] _Reise in Peru, während der Jahre 1827-32_, von Eduard Poeppig, Professor an der Universität zu Leipzig, ii. pp. 217-23, 257-64.

[69] Stevenson, however, says that large quantities of bark were brought from the woods east of Huamalies in 1825.--_Travels_, ii. p. 66.

[70] Poeppig. Van Tschudi, p. 399.

[71] Poeppig.

[72] Howard.

[73] I have caused the part of Poeppig's work which relates to chinchona-trees and their barks to be translated for circulation in India and Ceylon.

[74] As early as 1790 the calisaya bark was highly prized in Madrid.

[75] The valuable species found in Bolivia and Southern Peru. Dr. Weddell derives the name from the Quichua words _colli_ (red) and _saya_ (form); Poeppig from _colla_ (a remedy) and _salla_ (rocky ground); Van Tschudi from _collisara_ (reddish maize). Dr. Laefdael, the Judge of Caravaya, told me it came from _ccali_ (strong) and _sayay_ (become, or be thou). Calisaya is the name of a family of Indian Caciques in Caravaya, one of whom acted an important part in the revolt of 1780-1. The plant may have been called after him.

[76] The bark of _C. Calisaya_, known as "yellow bark" in commerce, was at first erroneously believed to come from _C. cordifolia_, because Mutis had called the bark from that species _cascarilla amarilla_, or "yellow bark." See p. 28.

[77] This account of the Bolivian bark trade is from Dr. Weddell's _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les partes voisines de Pérou_. Paris, 1853. Chap. xiii. p. 235.

[78] Gibbon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 147.

[79] _Mercurio del Vapor_, Dec. 15, 1859.

[80] _Yuncu_ is a tropical valley in Quichua, hence _yungus_, a Spanish corruption of the same word.

[81] _Quinologie_, par M. A. Delondre. Paris, 1854.

[82] _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les partes voisines de Pérou_, par H. A. Weddell. Paris, 1853. Dr. Weddell is now engaged in the publication of a work on the plants of the more elevated parts of the Andes, entitled _Chloris Andina_.

[83] An account of it was published in the Journal of the Horticultural Society, vol. vii. p. 272.

[84] Pereira, _Mat. Med._ ii. part ii. p. 118.

[85] Weddell, _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_.

[86] Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_.

[87] _Mém. de l' Acad. Roy. des Sciences_, 1738, p. 226.

[88] _Noticias Secretas_, p. 572.

[89] MS. quoted by Howard.

[90] Poeppig.

[91] Karsten.

[92] I. p. 245. Probably the idea was first conceived much earlier by Dr. Ainslie, who, half a century ago, remarked that it was matter of regret that "it had never been attempted to rear those articles of the Materia Medica in India, for which the world is now solely indebted to America."--Ainslie's _Materia Medica_, p. 66 (_note_).

[93] _Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm._ ii. p. 252.

[94] _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 13.

[95] _Quinologie_, par M. A. Delondre, p. 15.

[96] So convinced is Dr. Weddell that there is imminent danger of the supplies of bark eventually being exhausted, that he says, "Avant que la malheur que je prévois n'arrive (et ce ne sera pas de notre temps) la science aura peut-être fait la conquête de quelque nouveau médicament qui rendra moins regrettable la perte de l'écorce de Pérou."--_Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 245.

[97] Howard.

[98] Howard.

[99] _Ychu_ is grass in Quichua, and _corpa_ a lodging.

[100] Information from Gironda, then Governor of Sina.

[101] _Kew Miscellany_, Oct. and Nov. 1856.

[102] Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 8.

[103] _Bonplandia_, March, 1859, p. 72. The pay of an Assistant-Resident in Java is 500_l._ a-year.--Money's _Java_.

[104] A lofty tree, 150 to 200 feet high, with a very close-grained wood. It yields a fragrant resin called _storax_.

[105] Report of Mr. Fraser, H. M. Consul at Batavia.

[106] Dr. Junghuhn called some of the plants _C. lanceolata_, and others _C. succirubra_; but he has himself allowed that the former are a mere variety of the worthless species, seeds of which were sent by M. Hasskarl from Uchubamba; and the latter certainly cannot be _C. succirubra_, as that valuable kind is not found in the Peruvian districts visited by M. Hasskarl.

[107] Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860. No. 50.

[108] Dr. Anderson's Report, Dec. 14, 1861, No. 326; and Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 12.

[109] Report of Mr. Fraser, late H. M. Consul at Batavia.

[110] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_. No. 7.

[111] He left Java in September, 1861, after a residence of six years.

[112] Howard. No. 7 (_note_).

[113] Report of Mr. Fraser.

[114] Dr. Junghuhn has published two very interesting reports on the cultivation of the chinchona-plants in Java, in the _Bonplandia_, a German botanical journal: the first in Nos. 4 and 5 of 1858, and the second in the numbers for July and August, 1860. I have caused these reports to be translated and circulated for the information of those who are intrusted with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation in India or Ceylon.

[115] Mr. Spruce's remark on the eventual necessity of cultivating the chinchona tree is important. He says, "I have seen enough of collecting the products of the forests to convince me that _whatever vegetable substance is needful to man, he must ultimately cultivate the plant producing it_."--_Report_, p. 83.

[116] It appears, by a government return, that 2051 lbs. of quinine were sent to India in 1856, and 1180 lbs. in 1857.

The _Friend of India_ of December 10th, 1860, however, quoting from the _Lancet_, states that the consumption of quinine and bark in the government hospitals in India in 1857-8 was 6815 lbs., and that in 1858-9 it amounted to 5087 lbs. The writer of the article adds that the government druggists in India sell quinine at 1_l._ an ounce; but, taking the cost of an ounce of quinine at 10_s._, the expenditure on this medicine, according to the above figures, would amount to 54,520_l._ in 1857-8, and to 40,696_l._ in 1858-9!

[117] Nevertheless we now have plants of _C. lancifolia_, the species which should have been procured from New Granada, thriving in India. They have been received from Java, in exchange for other species, and were originally raised from seeds sent by Dr. Karsten.

[118] When it was founded by General La Fuente, then Prefect of Arequipa.--_Castelnau_, iii. p. 443.

[119] There is anchorage for 20 or 25 vessels in 10 or 12 fathoms; but there is always a rather heavy swell, so that a hawser is necessary to keep a vessels bow to it, even in fine weather.

[120] In the following proportions:--

To England Alpaca wool 22,500 cwts worth £192,729 " Sheep's wool 18,669 " " 67,306 " Vicuña wool 72 " " 1,537 " Copper " 333 " Bark 1,365 " " 12,383 " Specie 34,706 To France Wool 877 " " 1,886 " Bark 95 " " 1,077 To the United States Wool 8,054 " " 24,884 -------- £336,842 --------

[121] The analysis of this soil, by Dr. Forbes Watson, gave the following result:--

Water, and a little organic matter 7.100 Silica, as silicate and as silex 59.800 Peroxide of iron 12.100 Alumina 12.300 Lime 4.100 Magnesia 2.100 Soda 0.724 Chloride of sodium 0.408 Phosphoric acid 0.117 Carbonic acid Sulphuric acid 0.082 ------- 99.681 Loss .319 ------- 100.000 -------

[122] "Tambo" is a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word _Tampu_, an inn or post-house.

[123] Almost all the woollen clothing of the Peruvian Indians is now imported from Yorkshire, and their shirtings from Lowell. Formerly it was all of home manufacture.

[124] Probably from the Quichua word _Chiri_--cold.

[125] _El Peru en_ 1860, por Alfredo Leubel.

[126] The republic of Peru has had 37 years and 7 months of existence, of which _28 years and 8 months_ have been passed in peace, 2 years in foreign war, and 6 years and 11 months in civil dissensions.

1824 to 1828 inclusive At peace. Jan. to July, 1829 At war with Colombia. July, 1829, to the end of 1833 At peace, under President Gamarra. Jan. 1834, to Feb. 1836 In civil dissensions. Feb. 1836, to Aug. 1838 At peace, under General Santa Cruz. Aug. 1838, to Jan. 1839 At war with Chile. Jan. 1839, to Jan. 1841 At peace, under President Gamarra. Jan. 1841, to July, 1841 In civil dissensions. July, 1841, to June, 1842 At war with Bolivia. Aug. 1842, to July, 1844 In civil dissensions. July, 1844, to June, 1854 At peace under Presidents Castilla and Echenique. June, 1854, to Jan. 1855 In civil war. Jan. 1855, to Oct. 1856 At peace, under President Castilla. Oct. 1856, to March, 1858 An insurrection at Arequipa. March, 1858, to March, 1862 At peace, under President Castilla.

These are the plain facts of the case, which are preferable to vague and ignorant statements that Peru has been in a constant state of civil war ever since the War of Independence.

[127] The elevations were taken with one of Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point thermometers.

[128] So called from being covered with small round pebbles, like comfits.

[129] At this elevation grows an asclepiad (_Pentagonium flavum_), a little lowly plant with yellow flowers.--_Chloris Andina_, ii. p. 49.

[130] _Baccharis Incarum_ of Weddell.--_Chloris Andina_, i. p. 170.

[131] Dr. Weddell mentions a composita (_Merope piptolepis_) as being common near the shores of these lakes.--_Chloris Andina_, i. p. 162. And an oxalis in the crevices of the rocks near La Compuerta.--_Oxalis Nubigena_, ii. p. 291.

In the neighbourhood of La Compuerta there are several other lowly alpine plants--a St. John's wort (_Hypericum brevistylum_), another oxalis, and two mallows, &c. &c.

[132] M. de Castelnau says that vessels exactly resembling those of lake Titicaca are represented on the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes.

[133] Gonzalez Montoya was the best Governor that Puno has ever known. He was a benevolent as well as a determined man, and abolished the _mitas_, or drafting of Indians for forced labour in the mines of Potosi. When ordered by the Government to restore the _mitas_, he replied, "Obedesco pero no cumplo."

[134] Garcilasso de la Vega says that the Indians boil the leaves of the _sunchu_, and then dry them in the sun, and keep them to eat in the winter.--I. lib. 8, cap. xv. p. 284.

[135] In 1663 the mines of Laycaycota, Cancharani, and San Antonio de Esquilache, near Puno, produced 1,500,000 dollars' worth of silver in one year!--Miller's _Memoirs_, ii. p. 238.

[136] _Compendio del hecho y apuntamiento de derechos de Fisco, en la causa contra José de Salcedo, sobre las sediciones y tumultos del asiento de minas de Laycocota._ _Papeles Varios_ 2, in the National Library at Lima.

[137] This was the Count of Medellin who married Catalina Ponce de Leon, sister of the Duchess of Gandia, whose husband was brother of the Countess of Lemos.

[138] _Declaracion de todo lo que contiene la demonstracion hecha por los Vehedores Don Juan Eusebio Ximenes, y Don Valentin Calderon de la Barca, de Orden Real, a Cancharani, Laycocota la alta, y Laycocota la baja, sus situaciones y vetas, desde la villa de Puno en distancia a una legua a cuya falda esta la gran laguna de Chucuito_, 1718. MS. Report at Puno, with a map, which has unfortunately been lost.

[139] The men who broke out the ores with picks got 5 rials a day; and 6 men worked out 6 to 8 cwts. of mineral daily, working 12 hours. The rest of the workmen got 4 rials a-day

[140] A small shrub (_Baccharis Incarum_) often covering the hills.

[141] It yields about 30 per cent. of silver.

[142] In 1845 Bustamante placed the value of the exports at 2,500,000 dol.!

[143] From the _Geografia del Peru_. Lima, 1859.

[144] An Englishman had a schooner on the lake, but I believe she is now abandoned or broken up; and there is no craft at present but the reed balsas.

[145] The Peruvian Government answered this decree in a noble spirit, by declaring that they would not retaliate, but, on the contrary, would assist commercial traffic between the two countries by every means in their power. Linares rescinded his barbarous edict on October 17th.

[146] All the bark shipped at Islay is smuggled across the Bolivian frontier; Arica is the recognised port of Bolivia; and the bark exported from Payta comes from the neighbouring republic of Ecuador.

[147] Evaporation, however, goes on at all seasons, owing to the excessive elevation of the waters.

[148] So say the people of Puno, but the island is all limestone.

[149] The name is more modern; given, as tradition relates, by one of the Incas, who happened to be encamped here when a _chasqui_ or messenger arrived with extraordinary rapidity from Cuzco. The Inca exclaimed, "_Tia-huanaco!_" "Be seated, O Huanaco!"--the huanaco being the swiftest animal in Peru.

[150] The Hindoo god Siva is also represented with a necklace of human heads.

[151] For descriptions of the ruins at Cuzco, see my former work, _Cuzco and Lima_, chap. iv. and v.

[152] It is now introduced into our greenhouses.

[153] The lizard appears to have been a favourite device amongst the ancient Aymaras. There is also one carved on a block of stone amongst the ruins of Tiahuanaco.

[154] The idol of Copacabana was made of a beautiful blue stone, hence the name. It had an ugly human head, and a fish's body, and it was adored as the God of the Lake.

[155] Calancha.

[156] Facing the road on the mainland, between Juli and Pomata.

[157] He nominated Apu Inca Sucso, a grandson of the Inca Viracocha, as Governor; who was father of Apuchalco Yupanqui, the grandfather of Don Alonzo Viracocha Inca, and his brother Don Pablo, who governed the island of Titicaca, under the Spaniards, in A.D. 1621.

[158] Fray Alonzo Ramas says that in 1611 an old woman, aged 120 years, died at Viacha, a day's journey from La Paz, who confessed that she had been a Virgin of the Sun.

[159] _Cronica Moralizada de la Provincia del Peru, del Orden de San Agustin, por el Padre Fray Antonio de la Calancha._ Lima, 1653.

[160] Mr. Merivale, in his _Colonization and Colonies_, says, "It must be admitted that, had the legislation of Spain in other respects been as well conceived as that respecting the Indians, the loss of her Western empire would have been an unmerited visitation."

[161] Others say that the word _Cacique_ was brought from the Old World by the Spaniards, and that it is a corruption of the Arabic _Sheikh_.

[162] Prince of Esquilache's despatch, A.D. 1618, No. 6, p. 344, H. 53. MS. despatches in the national library at Madrid.

[163] See the sentence of death passed on the Inca Tupac Amaru in 1782, by the Visitador Areche, in which the use of these dresses, and the celebration of festivals and plays, are prohibited for the future.

[164] See _Money's Java_, i. p. 215, where there is an account of the position and functions of the native "Regents."

[165] The pay of an Indian was usually 1 rial (6_d._) a week in the farms, and 20 rials (about 10_s._) in the mines. But the miners kept back a third of the Indian's wages, nominally to form a fund to pay for his return to his home at the end of his period of service.

[166] The Marquis of Montes Claros derives the word _mita_ from the Quichua _mitta_, "time," and says that the _mita_ was established to prevent idleness, and for the good of the Indians!--_Memorias_, i. p. 21.

[167] _Report of the Viceroy Prince of Esquilache_, 1620. This, however, is not quite clear: it is more probable that Indians were lawlessly torn from their homes to work in the mines when the _mita_ of a seventh did not yield a sufficient number of labourers. In North Peru the proportion was a sixth, and in Quito a fifth.

[168] Montes Claros describes them as Indians domiciled on the estates or in the houses of Spaniards, like servants; their masters giving them food, clothes, and a bit of land, and paying their tribute for them. Lest the system should degenerate into slavery, the king, in a _cedula_ of 1601, declared that they were free, and desired that this should be made known to them.--_Memorias_, i. p. 27.

[169] _Ordenanzas_, No. 34, 12, 140.

[170] Especially in those of the Count of Alba de Liste in 1660. In September of that year this viceroy assembled a Junta, in obedience to an order from Spain, to consult respecting the instruction and good treatment of the Indians. The proceedings, still in MS., may be seen in the national library at Lima.

[171] _Cuzco and Lima_, chap. vii., from the _Noticias Secretas_ of the Ulloas.

[172] II. p. 304 of the _Memorias de los Vireyes_. But no safe calculation can be made respecting the actual population from these numbers.

[173] _Papeles Varios._ No. 4. MS. in the library at Lima.

[174] The amalgamation with quicksilver was introduced at Potosi by Velasco in 1571. The quicksilver was sent down from Huancavelica to the port of Chincha, thence to Arica by sea, and from Arica over the cordillera to Potosi.--_Report of the Prince of Esquilache._

[175] _Carta sobre trabajos, agravios, y injusticias que padecen los Indios del Peru_; por Don Juan de Padilla, 1657.--MS. in the National Library at Lima.

[176] _Papeles Varios._ No. 4. MS.

[177] MS. in Lima library.

[178] _Manifesto de los agravios que padecen los Indios._--MS. at Lima.

[179] _Funes_, iii. p. 242-333.

[180] _Calancha._

[181] In 1591 a duty of 2 per cent. was placed on all merchandise, and 5 per cent. on coca.--_Report of the Prince of Esquilache_, 1620.

[182] This system of _repartimientos_ or _repartos_ was also introduced in the first instance with a benevolent intent, that of supplying the people with European goods at a reasonable price. I use the word _reparto_ in future, to distinguish this system from that of the _repartimiento_ during the earlier period of Spanish domination in Peru, which, with the same word, had a very different meaning.

[183] _Informe por Diego Tupac Amaru.--Azangaro._ Oct. 18, 1781. (Angelis).

[184] Letter from Gen. del Valle to two friends at Lima, Oct. 3, 1781.

[185] _Colonization and Colonies_, p. 6 and p. 283 (_note_).

[186] _Papeles Varios_, No. 4.--MS. at Lima.

[187] _Manifesto de Don Juan de Padilla_.--MS. at Lima.

[188] _Sumario del Concilio II., Provincial en Lima_, 1567. Also, letter from Dr. Juan Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, July 20, 1782, MS.; and in the collection of Angelis.

[189] _Practica de visitas y Residencias_, Naples, 1696; and _Papeles Varios_, No. 4.

[190] See Temple's _Travels in Peru_ for an authentic account of the rebellion of the Cataris in Upper Peru, and the siege of La Paz.

[191] Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco, January, 1784, MS.; also in Nos. 9 to 20 of the _Museo Erudito_ of Cuzco, July, 1837.

[192] Letter from Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, MS.

[193] _Ensayo de la Historia civil del Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, y Tucuman, por el Dr. Don Gregorio Funes, Dean de la Santa Iglesia Catedral de Cordova._--Buenos Ayres, 1817, 4 vols, tom. iii. pp. 242-333. This work contains a detailed and very interesting account of the insurrections of Tupac Amaru, and of the Cataris in Upper Peru.

[194] An account of the copious materials from which my information respecting Tupac Amaru is derived will be found in a note at the beginning of the following chapter.

[195] "Native races must in every instance either perish, or be amalgamated with the general population of their country."--Merivale's _Colonies and Colonization_, p. 510.

[196] _Spanish Conquest in America_, iv. p. 368.

[197] _Colonies and Colonization_, p. 522.

[198] _Amaru_ means serpent in Quichua, and _Tupac_ royal or excellent. _Tupac_ also may be the participle of _Tupani_, I rend.

Serpents are frequently carved in relief on the masonry of Inca edifices.

[199] These particulars are given by the monk Gonzalez, in his _Historia de lo acaecido en Paucartambo_, a narrative still in MS.; besides which, the materials for the history of the rebellion of Tupac Amaru consist of a large collection of original documents, including narratives, letters, despatches, and edicts, printed in the _Coleccion de obras y documentos relativos a la historia antiqua y moderna de las provincias de Rio de la Plata_, por Pedro de Angelis (Buenos Ayres, 1836), tom. v. pp. 109-286; the Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco, printed in the _Museo Erudito del Cuzco_; a large collection of original MSS. which were given to the late Gen. Miller in 1833, by Padre José Xavier de Guzman, of the Franciscan convent in Santiago de Chile; the letter from Tupac Amaru to Areche, and the sentence of death pronounced by Areche, which are printed in the Appendix to the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's _Memoirs_; the work of Don Gregorio Funes, Dean of Cordova, published at Buenos Ayres in 1817 (4 vols.); and the diary of Don Sebastian de Segurola, Governor of La Paz, during its siege by the Indians, published in Temple's _Travels in Peru_, ii. p. 103-78. I also obtained a copy of Areche's reply to Tupac Amaru, from a MS. in the public library at Lima.

Weddell has given an account of the insurrection of Tupac Amaru in his _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, chap. xv. p. 263-88. This chapter is a résumé of the collection of original documents in the work of Angelis.

[200] Information from Don Pablo Astete, aged 80, given to Gen. Miller at Cuzco in 1835. Astete's father had been an intimate friend of Tupac Amaru, but afterwards served against him.

[201] Information from Dominga Bastidas, a cousin of Tupac Amaru's wife, given to Gen. Miller at Cuzco in 1835. She said that Micaela was always considered to have been very beautiful; and added, that the sons of Tupac Amaru, when at college at Cuzco, spent the feast-days at her house. In 1835 she was a very old woman.

[202] This description of Tupac Amaru is almost word for word as it was given to Gen. Miller by Don Pablo Astete, who well remembered him.

[203] The inhabitants of Tungasuca, about 500 in number, were as remarkable for their agricultural industry in 1853, when I saw them, as they formerly were as muleteers.

[204] From a MS. at Lima, headed "_En el Cuzco, Dec. 3, 1780_."

[205] Inca Manco had two sons, Sayri Tupac and Tupac Amaru. Clara Beatriz Coya, daughter of Sayri Tupac, married Don Martin Garcia de Loyola, and had a daughter, Lorenza, created Marchioness of Oropesa and Countess of Alcanises, with remainder to the descendants of her great-uncle, Tupac Amaru. She married Don Juan Henriquez de Borja, but, in 1770, there were no descendants of this marriage, and the descendant of Tupac Amaru was the lawful heir to the marquisate.

The decision of the Royal Audience of Lima disposes of the statement of Baron Humboldt (_Political Essay_, i. p. 208), that "the pretended Inca was a Mestizo, and his true father a monk." Humboldt was certainly misinformed, as there is not a shadow of grounds for the assertion. Tupac Amaru's birth is never questioned in any of the documents in my possession, consisting of his sentence of death, proclamations, and letters from his enemies, in which no opportunity is lost of blackening his memory.

[206] _Despachos que el Exmo. Señor Principe de Esquilache, Virey de los reynos del Peru, envio a su Magestad._ No. 6, p. 344. Lima, April 16, 1618.--MS. in the National Library at Madrid, H. 53.

[207] From the collection of Angelis.

[208] Funes.

[209] In my review of the language and literature of the Incas in a former work (_Cuzco and Lima_, chap. vi.) I gave some translated extracts from the drama of _Ollantay_, and an abstract of the plot. I then stated that it was an ancient play, which had been handed down from the time of the Incas; but I have since discovered that Dr. Valdez was its author, although it contains several ancient songs and speeches, and though the plot is undoubtedly ancient. I was led into the error by the opinion expressed by the Peruvian antiquary, Mariano Rivero,[210] a very high authority, that the drama had been handed down from the time of the Incas.

The original MS. is now in the possession of Don Narciso Cuentas, of Tinta, the nephew and heir of Dr. Valdez; but there are numerous MS. copies in Peru, and it has been printed at the end of Dr. Von Tschudi's _Kechua Sprache_.

There is a review of this Quichua drama of Dr. Valdez, in the _Museo Erudito_ (Nos. 5 to 9), a periodical published at Cuzco in 1837, by the editor, Don José Palacios. He says that the story respecting Ollantay was handed down by immemorial tradition, but that the drama was written by Dr. Valdez. The writer criticizes the plot, objecting that the treason of Ollantay is rewarded, while the heroic conduct of Rumi-ñaui remains unnoticed. Palacios had inquired of Don Juan Hualpa, a noble Cacique of Belem in Cuzco, and of the Caciques of San Sebastian and San Blas, who agreed in their account of the tradition, which was that the rebellion of Ollantay arose from the abduction of an _Aclla_ or Virgin of the Sun from her convent, but they had not heard her name, nor who she was.

These particulars respecting the origin of the drama of _Ollantay_ may be interesting to readers who have paid any attention to the history of the civilization of the Incas. Though not so ancient as I once supposed, the drama is still very curious, because it contains songs and long passages of undoubted antiquity.

[210] Antiquedades Peruanas, p. 116.

[211] Two and a half leagues from Tinta, and two miles from Yanaoca.

[212] Near the port of Islay, and westward of Cornejo point, the coast forms a shallow bay, in which is the small cove of Aranta, 13 miles from the valley of Quilca. Its capabilities as a port were personally examined by the President Castilla three years ago.

[213] One mile from Tungasuca.

[214] A coat of arms was granted to the family of the Incas by Charles V., at Valladolid, in 1544. Tierce in fess. On a chief azure, a Sun with glory proper; on a fess vert an eagle displayed sable, between a rainbow and two serpents proper; on a base gules, a castle proper.

These partitions, by tiercing the shield, are not used in English heraldry.

[215] _Quispi_, flint; and _cancha_, a place.

[216] The Spaniards declared that the Indians set the church on fire, and that all perished.--(_Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco_, MS.) But the above account of the affair was given by the Inca himself to Don Miguel Andrade of Azangaro, and he denied positively that the church was set on fire.--_Sublevacion de Tupac Amaru._ Angelis.

[217] Landa, the Governor of Paucartambo, had formerly led an exploring expedition into the montaña, in search of the great river of Madre de Dios or Purus.--_Cuzco and Lima_, p. 263.

[218] This Cacique Sahuaraura was the father of the late Dr. Justo Sahuaraura, of Cuzco, who published a little genealogical work in Paris, in 1850, in which he claimed descent from the Incas. I hear, however, that his genealogy is apocryphal. In 1835 he wrote to the editor of the _Museo Erudito_ of Cuzco, offering to write the traditions of his family in that periodical, as an Inca. A Dr. Gallego, of Cuzco, replied that no Inca was ever called Sahuaraura, but that the Inca Rocca once had a servant of that name, and that he might possibly be descended from him. This silenced Don Justo for a long time. (_Sahuay_, a flame; _raurac_, make. He had to light the Inca's fire).

[219] Letter from Dr. Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, July 20, 1782.--_Angelis._

[220] In the collection of Angelis.

[221] _Angelis_ and _Guzman_, MSS.

[222] _Historia de lo acaecido en el Real Asunto de Paucartambo, en la rebelion sucitada por José Gabriel Tupac Amaru._ A manuscript account of the siege of Paucartambo, by Fray Raymundo Gonzalez, Religioso Mercedario, written in 1782. The original is still at Paucartambo, where I saw it, and there are two or three copies at Cuzco.

[223] Namely:--

Pumacagua of Chinchero. Rosas of Anta. Sucacahua of Umachiri. Huaranca of Santa Rosa. Chuquihuanca of Azangaro. Game of Paruro. Espinosa of Catoca. Carlos Visa of Achalla. Chuquicallata of Saman. Huambo Tupa of Yauri. Callu of Sicuani. Aronis of Checacupe. Cotacellapa of Caravaya. Sahuaraura of Oropesa. Choquechua of Belem, in Cuzco. Bustinza Uffucana of S^{ta.} Anna, in Cuzco.--_Letter from Dr. Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco._

[224] The way in which this valuable despatch of the Inca Tupac Amaru became public is very curious. In 1806 Dr. Tadeo Garate, of La Paz, Secretary to Bishop Las Heras (afterwards Archbishop of Lima), was ordered by the Viceroy Marquis of Aviles to publish a history of the Rebellion of Tupac Amaru in 1780-1; and, to guard against the possibility of authentic counter-statements, this despatch was taken from the archives of Cuzco, and sent to La Paz in charge of an Indian student named Pasoscanki, who perused it on the road, and was so struck with the magnanimity and heroism of his native prince, that he did not deliver the papers. He afterwards emigrated to Buenos Ayres, and, in 1812, went to England, and commissioned Mr. Wood, of Poppin's-court, Fleet-street, to print Tupac Amaru's despatch; but, for want of funds, this was not done, and, Pasoscanki returning to Buenos Ayres, the publication was abandoned. In 1828 the same printer was employed to print the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's _Memoirs_, and at that time the despatch was found amongst some old papers in Mr. Wood's office. It was finally published in an appendix to the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's _Memoirs_.

[225] Report of Gen. del Valle, Sept. 30, 1781, MS. Letter of Areche. MS., in the library at Lima.

[226] This draft of an edict is amongst the papers in Angelis. It is possible, however, that it may have been forged by the Spaniards, in order to produce written evidence of the intentions of Tupac Amaru.

[227] Tomas Parvina de Colquemarca, "Justicia Mayor," and Felipe Bermudez, a Spaniard, belonged to the "Junta Privada," or Privy Council, of the Inca. Bermudez had acted as the Inca's secretary.

[228] There is said to be a picture in the church at Tinta representing this massacre.

[229] He is said to have been dressed in Incarial robes, with the arms of the Incas embroidered in gold at the corners.

[230] A list of the prisoners is given amongst the Angelis papers.

[231] It is printed in the appendix to the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's _Memoirs_, vol. i.

[232] One account says that he was tortured until one arm was dislocated, by the _garruche_, by order of Matta Linares. _Guzman_ MSS.

[233] Letter from Gen. del Valle, Sept. 30, 1781.

[234] One of these was Dr. Don Toribio Carrasco, afterwards Cura of Belem in Cuzco, who, in 1835, mentioned the circumstance, and the impression it had made, to Gen. Miller.

[235] These executions, in all their revolting details, were certified by Juan Bautista Gamarra, public notary to the Cabildo of Cuzco, in a document dated May 20, 1781.

[236] _Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco._

[237] The edict, fixing the destinations of the different parts of each victim, is printed amongst the papers in Angelis.

[238] The Pizarros and their companions were angels of mercy when compared with such vile wretches as Areche and Matta Linares; yet we are told by one of his flatterers that "the tender heart of the visitador was filled with piety and humanity, and that early on the day after the execution he went to the cathedral, and, having confessed and partaken of the sacrament, he paid for several masses for the souls of the culprits, and heard them all on his knees, thus edifying the whole city." Hypocritical hyæna!--_Guzman_ MSS.

[239] When Señor Zea, of Bogota, was in Paris, Kotzebue undertook a journey on purpose to obtain information from him respecting Tupac Amaru, having conceived the idea of writing a tragedy founded on his rebellion. But Zea, being a Colombian, knew little or nothing about it.

Kotzebue, however, continued his inquiries respecting Peru, which resulted in his play _The Virgins of the Sun_, and hence Sheridan's _Pizarro_.

[240] Orellana was a native of Cuenca, and descended from the great navigator of the Amazons.

[241] _Relacion del Gobernador de Puno, de sus expediciones, sitios, defensa, y varios acaecimientos, hasta que despoblo la villa de orden del Inspector y Commandante General Don José Antonio del Valle: corre desde 16 Noviembre 1780, hasta 17 de Julio 1781._

[242] During my stay at Puno I lived in the house which was occupied by Orellana during the siege. It is now the property of Don Manuel Costas.

[243] Information from Gen. San Roman.

[244] One thousand nine hundred and fifty men deserted in six days.--_Letter from del Valle._

[245] _Manifesto del Gen. del Valle. Se queja amargamente contra el visitador Areche._ Cuzco, Septre. 1781.--_Guzman_ MSS.

[246] Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro.

[247] Angelis.

[248] Custom-house officers.

[249] _Informe por Don Diego Tupac Amaru._ Azangaro, Oct. 18, 1781.

[250] Angelis.

[251] By far the best account of the rebellion of the Cataris in Upper Peru, and of the two sieges of La Paz, is to be found in the work of Dean Funes.

[252] The Bishop of Cuzco, Dr. Don Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta, afterwards had twenty-two accusations or charges brought against him connected with this rebellion, which he answered in detail in a work published at Madrid. One is that he excommunicated a priest for betraying the secrets of the Indians told under the seal of confession; another that he tried to save the lives of several Indian rebels; another that he asked for a general pardon after the death of the Inca; another that he permitted Mariano Tupac Amaru to celebrate the funeral of his father, &c. If these accusations were true, they all redound to the bishop's honour; and it is to be regretted that he was so anxious to defend himself against them. At the end of his book there are some letters to him from Diego Tupac Amaru. "_Inocencia justificada contra los artificios de la calumnia. Papel que escribio en defensa de su honor y distinguidos servicios hechos con motivo de la rebelion del Reyno del Peru, por José Gabriel Tupac Amaru: el Illustrissimo Señor Don Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta, Obispo del Cuzco._" (Fol. Madrid).

[253] _Oficio del Inspector Don José del Valle, al Virey de Buenos Ayres._ Ayaviri, July 14, 1782.

[254] Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco.

[255] Report of Don Augustin de Jauregui, Viceroy of Peru. Lima, March 29, 1783.

[256] _Oficio de Don Gabriel de Aviles, a Don Sebastian de Segurola._ Cuzco.

[257] _Sentencia contra el reo Tupac Amaru, y demas acomplices, pronunciada por Don Gabriel de Aviles, y Don Benito de la Matta Linares._ July, 1783.

[258] Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro. Dr. Valdez died in 1816. Don Pablo Pimentel, the worthy Subprefect of Caravaya, told me that he remembered the old cura well, as a tall man with a stately walk, who always gave him a dollar when he met him in Sicuani.

[259] A fabulous region supposed to exist far to the eastward of the Andes, in the unknown parts of the Amazonian valley.

[260] _Oficio de Don Felipe Carrera, Corregidor de Parinacochas_, Julio 12, 1783. Also _Sentencia dado por el Virey de Lima, contra los reos_, Julio, 1783. Angelis.

[261] A person calling himself Juan Bautista Tupac Amaru, and professing to have been one of the sufferers, printed a pamphlet, which was deposited in the archives of Buenos Ayres. In it he relates the tale of his miseries in uncouth Spanish. He says that he beheld his fettered mother perish of thirst on the road to Lima, in presence of guards who turned a deaf ear to her cries for water. He saw his faithful wife die on board the ship, without being allowed length of chain enough to approach her. During an imprisonment of forty years at Ceuta the sentries never relaxed their cruelties until the ministry which came into power in Spain, after the military movement of 1820, set the few survivors at liberty.

It is now confidently asserted that the author of this pamphlet was an impostor. He came to Buenos Ayres in 1822, and the republican government granted him a house, and a pension for life of 30 dollars a month.

[262] The words of the Cura of Belem, who heard it.

[263] Don Luis Ocampo related this anecdote to Gen. Miller in 1835, when he was still living at Cuzco, but upwards of eighty years of age. After Peru had become independent, in about 1828, a person, calling himself Fernando Tupac Amaru, appeared in Buenos Ayres, and went on to Lima, becoming a monk in the convent of San Pedro; but he is believed to have been an impostor.

[264] Goyeneche was created Count of Huaqui. His brother, the late Bishop of Arequipa, and present Archbishop of Lima, is probably the senior Bishop of Christendom, dating his appointment from 1809; and he is certainly the richest man in all South America.

[265] _Confesion de Pumacagua._

[266] Information from Gen. San Roman, who called them _Fresaderos_.

[267] _Diario de la expedicion del Mariscal de Campo Don Juan Ramirez, sobre las provincias interiores de la Paz, Puno, Arequipa, y Cuzco, por Don José Alcon, Teniente Coronel agregado a la misma expedicion._ Lima, 1815. (1 tom. 4°, 112 paginas).

[268] Information from Gen. San Roman, whose father, a native of Puno, joined Pumacagua at Cavanilla.

[269] Colonel Alcon.

[270] Gen. San Roman.

[271] _Documento_, i. _Oficio de Vicente Angulo a Ramirez._ Feb. 28, 1815.

[272] _Documento_ ii. _Oficio de Pumacagua a Ramirez._ Marzo 6, 1815.

[273] _Documento_ iii. _Contestacion de Ramirez a Pumacagua._ Marzo 7, 1815.

[274] Information from Gen. San Roman.

[275] Gen. San Roman, who gave me the account of this battle, was himself present at it, with his father, when a very little boy. His father was afterwards shot in the plaza of Puno, by the Spaniards, and when the liberating army arrived on the coast of Peru, in 1822, the young San Roman hurried down from his mountain home to join their ranks.

[276] In October, 1823, Gen. Miller saw the fair object of the poet Melgar's adoration, at Camana, on the coast of Peru. She was a native of Arequipa, with light hair, blue eyes, and a fair clear complexion. She refused Melgar, married another, and, being obliged to flee with her husband to escape the persecution of the Royalists, found an asylum on the banks of the river Camana. Her maiden name was Paredes.--Miller's _Memoirs_, ii. p. 90.

Melgar's brother is now Minister of Foreign Affairs at Lima.

[277] Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro.

[278] So strong is the feeling of the Peruvian people generally against this oppressive system, that, in the reformed constitution promulgated on Nov. 25, 1860, forced recruiting was declared to be a crime.

"El reclutamiento es un crimen."--_Titulo_ xvi., _art._ 123.

[279] In 1859 there was a very formidable rising of the Indians in Chayanta, which was not put down until after much bloodshed.

[280] Humboldt.

[281] Hatun-colla was once the capital of the great Inca province of the Collao.

[282] The three latter are also mentioned by Haenke.

[283] _Antiquedades Peruanas._

[284] One of the manufacturers, Don Manuel Zenon Ramos, has been very active in seeking for instruction, designs, and models from Europe.

[285] _Lupinus Paniculatus._--Chloris Andina, ii. p. 252.

[286] Landa sent in a report of his expedition to the Corregidor of Cuzco. My friend Dr. Don Julian Ochoa, the rector of the university of Cuzco, has recently searched the archives of the ancient municipality of that city, as well as private collections, for this interesting document, at my request, but without success.

[287] See _Cuzco and Lima_, chap. viii.; also _Roy. Geo. Soc. Journal_ for 1855.

[288] This is not the great river which flows near Cuzco, and falls into the Ucayali. The Indians call all rivers which serve as the trunk or centre of a system of streams _Huilca_ or _Vilca-mayu_.

[289] Brother of the present rector of the university of Cuzco.

[290] Account of the Valleys of Marcapata, by Don José Maria Pacheco. _Museo Erudito del Cuzco_, 1839, No. 21. See also an account of a journey down the course of the river Marcapata as far as its junction with the Ollachea, signed Paul Marcoy, in the _Revue Contemporaine_, tom. 4^{me}, 1860. _Scènes et Paysages dans les Andes._

[291] _Comm. Real_, ii. lib. iii. cap. xix. p. 174.

[292] Lib. iv. cap. iv.

[293] Don Pablo Pimentel says that the ancient name of the province was _Inahuaya_.

[294] _Bosquejo del estado actual de la provincia de Carabaya, y majorias que proponen al Supremo Gobierno el Suprefecto de ella, Don Pablo Pimentel._ Arequipa, 1846.

[295] _Memorias de los Vireyeo_, i. p. 36.

[296] _Memorial de cosas tocantes las minas de Caravaya._ J. 58, p. 441. A very illegible manuscript in the national library at Madrid.

[297] _Relacion del Conde de Castellar_, p. 222.

[298] _Relacion del Obispo Melchor Liñan y Cisneros_, p. 299.

[299] This appears from the _Informe_ of Diego Tupac Amaru, dated Azangaro, Oct. 18, 1781; in which he stipulates that the coca estate near San Gavan, in Caravaya, shall be granted to Mariano Tupac Amaru as his rightful possession, because it belonged to his father the Inca.

[300] _Bosquejo_, &c.

[301] There is one other town, or rather wretched village, on this Arctic plain, within Caravaya, called Macusani, about 30 miles north-west of Crucero.

[302] A Quichua poem was written on the Cura Cabrera, and his breed of paco-vicuñas, by Don M. M. Basagoitia. _Rivero's Antiq. Per._ 112-13.

[303] According to Don Pablo Pimentel. The people of Sandia told me 45,000 cestos, or 900,000 lbs.; and Lieut. Gibbon, U.S.N., in his work, says 500,000 lbs.

[304] These Chunchos of Caravaya belong to the same tribe as the fierce Indians of the Paucartambo valleys, for some account of whom see my former work, _Cuzco and Lima_, p. 272.

Don Pablo Pimentel calls the wild tribes of Caravaya _Caranques_ and _Sumahuanes_, but I think this is a mistake. Garcilasso de la Vega mentions the _Coranques_ as a fierce tribe to the north of Quito, who were conquered by the Inca Huayna Capac.--_Comm. Real_, i. lib. viii. cap. vii. p. 274.

[305] _Challhua_, fish, in Quichua; and _uma_, water, in Aymara.

[306] _Lijera descripcion que hace Juan Bustamante, de su viaje a Carabaya, y del estado actual de sus lavaderos y minerales._ Arequipa, 1850. Bustamante says that, at the time of his visit, there were a hundred people at the _lavaderos_ of the Challuma, and that the Indians received 4 rials a day.

[307] _On the Geology of Bolivia and Southern Peru_, by David Forbes, Esq., in the Journal of the Geological Society for Feb. 1861, p. 53.

Mr. Forbes had, of course, personally examined only a portion of this great Silurian region. At Tipuani, in Bolivia, there is a very rich auriferous country, composed of blue-clay slates, with no fossils; while the beds near Sorata contain fossils, and consist of blue-clay shales, micaceous slates, grauwacke, and clay slates, with gold-bearing quartz, metallic bismuths, iron-ore, and argentiferous galena. "The whole of this Silurian formation is eminently auriferous, and contains everywhere frequent veins of auriferous quartz, usually associated with iron pyrites."

[308] The thermometer was at 25° Fahr. inside the hut.

[309] Observations by Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point thermometer.

[310] Titulo 14, s. 104.

[311] The _Juntas Departmentales_ have since been abolished by the Reformed Constitution, promulgated in Nov. 1860. Up to May, 1860, Gen. Castilla, the President, had never permitted them to meet.

[312] Titulo 15, s. 114.

[313] _La Revista de Lima_, tom. i. p. 159-60. Nov. 15, 1859. An article by G. A. Flores.

[314] The same was once the case all over Peru, in the good old days of the Incas, as we know from the curious dying confession of the last of the conquerors, Marcio Serra de Lejesama, addressed to Philip II., A.D. 1589.

"Your Majesty must understand that my reason for making this statement is to relieve my conscience, for we have destroyed the government of this people by our bad example. Crimes were once so little known among them, that an Indian with 100,000 pieces of gold and silver in his house left it open, only placing a little stick across the door, as a sign that the master was out; and nobody went in. But when they saw that we placed locks in our doors, they understood that it was from fear of theft; and when they saw that we had thieves amongst us, they thought little of us; but now these natives, through our bad example, have come to such a pass that no crime is unknown to them."--_Calancha_, lib. i. cap. 15, p. 98.

[315] G. de la Vega, _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15.

[316] _Acosta_, lib. iv. cap. 22, who cannot agree with those who believe its reputed virtues to be the effects of imagination.

[317] _Cedula_, 18 Oct. 1569.

[318] _Solorzano_, _Polit. Ind._, lib. ii. cap. 10, quoted by Unanue.

[319] J. de Jussieu was the first botanist who sent specimens of coca to Europe, in 1750.

Dr. Weddell suggests that the word comes from the Aymara _khoka_, a tree, i. e. _the_ tree _par excellence_, like _yerba_, _the_ plant of Paraguay. The Inca historian Garcilasso, however, spells the word _cuca_.

[320] The cesto of coca sells at 8 dollars in Sandia. In Huanuco it is 5 dollars the arroba of 25 lbs.

[321] Report of the Prince of Esquilache.

[322] Poeppig calculates the yield of Huanuco at 500,000 lbs.

[323] Poeppig, _Reise_, ii. p. 252; also Van Tschudi, p. 455.

[324] In Caravaya the _llipta_ is made into a pointed lump, and kept in a horn, or sometimes in a silver receptacle, in the _chuspa_. With it there is also a pointed instrument, with which the _llipta_ is scratched, and the powder is applied to the pellet of coca-leaves. In some provinces they keep a small calabash full of lime in their _chuspas_, called _iscupurus_.

[325] _Bonplandia_, viii. p. 355-78.

[326] The information in this chapter is derived from personal observation; from the essay on coca by Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue, in Nos. 3 to 8 of the _Museo Erudito_; and from the works treating of coca, by Van Tschudi, _Travels in Peru_, p. 455; Dr. Poeppig, _Reise in Peru_, ii. p. 248; Dr. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 516; the _Bonplandia_; and a memorandum by Dr. Booth, of La Paz. These are the best authorities on the subject.

[327] Dr. Weddell, the discoverer of this species, had never seen it in flower. I brought home leaves, flowers, and fruit of the _C. Caravayensis_, which are now in the herbarium at Kew.

[328] An Umbellifer. The roots taste something like a parsnip, and there are four kinds--white, yellow, brown, and reddish.

[329] _Lenco_ appears to mean "sticky mud," and _huayccu_ is a ravine, in Quichua.

[330] _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15.

[331] Lib. iv. cap. 29.

[332] Not, of course, the famous gold-bearing river of the same name.

[333] _Carhua-carhua-blanca (Lasionema ?) Tree._--30 or 40 feet high, growing in moist parts of the valley of Tambopata.

_Leaves._--Opposite, entire, petiolate, oblong, acute, smooth on both sides, dark green above, lighter beneath, with veins and midrib nearly white. 2-1/2 feet long by 9 or 10 inches broad. Coarse, bulging, and wrinkled between the veins.

_Calyx._--Deep purple and green, leathery, 5-toothed, teeth rounded.

_Corolla._--Tube white, tinged with light purple, leathery, 5 laciniæ, smooth and reflexed.

_Stamens._--5, attached to the middle of the tube of the corolla, exserted. Filaments pillose at the base, tinged with purple. Anthers a little shorter than the filaments, all lying on the lower sides of the tube of the corolla, light brown.

_Style._--Exserted, but a little shorter than the stamens, light green colour. _Stigma_, bi-cleft.

_Panicles._--Corymbose and multiflor, in threes, 6 to 15 buds on each. _Pedicels_ a brownish purple.

I have attempted to describe this tree, because I have been unable to identify it with any of the chinchonaceous plants in Dr. Weddell's work.

[334] _Yana_, in Quichua, is black; and _mayu_ a river.

[335] _Rupicola Peruviana_ (family of _Ampelidæ_). Van Tschudi says that they feed on the seeds of chinchona-trees.--_Travels in Peru_, p. 427.

[336] The bark, leaves, and capsules from this tree are deposited in the herbarium and museum at Kew.

[337] I brought home a bunch of the capsules, now in the herbarium at Kew.

[338] There we also found the _Trichomanes muscoides_, a pretty little fern which, I am informed by Mr. J. Smith, of Kew, though common in the West Indies, was not previously known to be a native of Peru.

[339] Specimens from this locality were examined and reported upon at 28, Jermyn-street.

[340] Described by Dr. Weddell, in his _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, in a note under the genus _Pimentelia_.

[341] In Peru the father of a child is _compadre_ to its godfather. It is considered a very close and sacred relationship.

[342] Hence the name _Lenco-huayccu_. _Lenqui_ is anything sticky in Quichua, and _huayccu_ a ravine.

[343] _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, Feb. 1, 1860, p. 59.

[344] Dr. Weddell believes it to be a distinct species from the _C. Micrantha_ of Huanuco, and has named it _C. Affinis_.

[345] "_Alcalde Municipal del Distrito de Quiaca, al Señor Juez de Paz Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda._

_"6 de Mayo de 1860._

"Teniendo positivas noticias de que sea internado a los puntos de Tambopata un estranjero Ingles, con objeto de estraer plantas de cascarilla, me es de absoluta necesidad pasarle a vm esta nota, para que sin permitir que en grave perjuicio de los hijos del pais, lo tome ni una planta, por lo que como autoridad debe vm de aberiguar bien para capturar a el y al persona quien se propone a facilitarle dichas plantas, y conducirlos a este.

"Dios guarde a vm.,

"JOSÉ MARIANO BOBADILLA."

[346] Hence the name of the Peruvian province of _Parinacochas_. _Parihuana-cocha_, the Flamingo lake.--G. de la Vega, _Comm. Real._ i. lib. iii. cap. ix. p. 83.

[347] "We give here the notices which we have collected respecting the existence and position of a lake which is not to be found in any map, and which bears the name of Arapa. It is said to be 6 leagues to the north of lake Titicaca, and is 30 leagues in circumference. It extends from the foot of a very abrupt chain of mountains, and its figure is that of a half-moon. It contains some islands. Its waters, having traversed two other smaller lakes to the west, fall into the Ramiz, which is thus rendered navigable at all seasons. The principal villages around the lake of Arapa are Chacamana, Chupan, Arapa, and Vetansas. Round the latter place it is said that there are many veins of silver and mines of precious stones."--_Castelnau_, tom. iii. chap. xxxix. p. 420.

[348] _Taya_ is an Aymara word, meaning "cold."

[349] _La Balsa de Arequipa_, Junio 15.

"Las cuestiones municipales han hecho gran daño al puerto de Islay, pues todo va mal con el desacuerdo que reina entre el cuerpo y las demas autoridades que lo combaten escandalosamente.

"Quiero que se sepa en esa ciudad que los estranjeros han dado en esportar per esta plantas de cascarilla, que es sabido esta prohibido hacerlo: acaba de embarcar un Ingles una multitud de ellas para la India, por comision official de su Gobierno. Yo no sé como es que esto se tolera, defraudando asi uno de los mejores y mas esclusivos ramos de nuestra riqueza."

[350]

"_Ministerio de Hacienda y Comercio._

_Lima, Junio 20 de 1860._

En el expediente relativa a la medida tomada por el Administrador de la Aduana de Islay, impediendo la extraccion de cierto numero de plantas de cascarilla, ha recaido con fecha de hoy, el siguiente decreto.

Visto este expediente, y atendiendo a que no esta prohibida por reglamento de Comercio, la extraccion de plantas de cascarilla, y a que de impedirse su exportacion, con detrimento de la libertad comercial que las leyes de la Republica, y ese reglamento protejan, no se conseguiria en manera alguna el objeto que el Administrador de la Aduana se ha propuesto al impedir el embarque de varias plantas de esa especie, se desaprueba dicha prohibicion, sin que por este se entiende que el Gobierno deja de apreciar el celo y patriotismo que revela en el preindicado Administrador la enunciada medida.

Dios guarda a V. S.,

JUAN JOSÉ SALCEDO."

[351] In an Appendix will be found a list of these knights errant in the cause of liberty. It was one of the last things upon which that gallant old warrior, General Miller, the most distinguished of their number, was engaged before his death in November 1861.

[352] "Pos las narraciones tan calumniosas como absurdas de algunos aventureros maldicientes, se nos considera punto menos que salvages," says a Peruvian writer.

[353] In Spanish times there were 83 "titulos de Castilla" in Peru, consisting of 1 duke, 46 marquises, 35 counts, and 1 viscount. The descendants of several of these noblemen still reside on their estates in Peru.

[354] The boundary between Ecuador and Peru is now founded on the _uti possidetis_ of 1810, and the treaty of 1829.

[355] _Pruvonena_, i. p. 688.

[356] Pedro Castilla discovered the class of ore called _lecheador_ (chloro-bromide of silver). See Bollaert's _Antiquarian and other Researches in Peru_, &c. In this work there is a full and interesting account of the province of Tarapaca, and of the nitrate of soda works, and other mineral products of that part of Peru.

[357] This province also yields great quantities of tobacco, sugar, rice, and maize; and the adjoining province of Truxillo produces cochineal, which was introduced by Mr. Blackwood.

[358] 1 _fanegada_ = 41,472 square _varas_ (yards), and 1 acre = 4840 varas. In Arequipa the square measure is called a _topu_. 1 _topu_ = 5000 square _varas_.

[359] Mr. Gerard Garland is about to commence a cotton plantation in the littoral province of Payta; and, if his project succeeds, it will doubtless induce others to follow his example.--_Cotton Supply Reporter_, March 15th, 1862.

[360] The use of guano as a manure was well known to the ancient Peruvians long before the Spanish conquest. Garcilasso de la Vega, the historian of the Incas, thus describes the use made by them of the deposits of guano on the coast of Peru:--

"On the shores of the sea, from below Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is more than 200 leagues of coast, they use no other manure than that of sea-birds, which abound in all the coasts of Peru, and go in such great flocks that it would be incredible to one who had not seen them. They breed on certain uninhabited islands which are on that coast; and the manure which they deposit is in such quantities that it would also seem incredible. From afar the heaps of manure appear like the peaks of some snowy mountain range. In the time of the kings, who were Incas, such care was taken to guard these birds in the breeding season, that it was not lawful for any one to land on the isles, on pain of death, that the birds might not be frightened, nor driven from their nests. Neither was it lawful to kill them at any time, either on the islands or elsewhere, also on pain of death. Each island was, by order of the Incas, set apart for the use of a particular province, and the guano was fairly divided, each village receiving a due portion. Now in these times it is wasted after a different fashion. There is much fertility in this bird-manure."--II. lib. v. cap. iii. p. 134-5. (Madrid, 1723.)

Frezier mentions that, when he was on the coast in 1713, guano was brought from Iquique and other ports along the coast, and landed at Arica and Ylo, for the aji-pepper and other crops.--Frezier's _South Sea_, p. 152. (London, 1717.)

[361] _Informes sobre la existencia de Huano, en las Islas de Chincha, por la comision nombrada por el Gobierno Peruano_, 1854. A small pamphlet, with plans.

[362] Bollaert's _Account of Tarapaca_.

[363] In 1858 there were 52 ships loading at the Kooria Mooria islands, off the coast of Arabia. In Jibleea the guano is found coating nearly the whole of the island (about 500,000 tons), white and polished, so as to be very slippery, which is very different from the guano of Peru. In May, 1857, this guano from Jibleea island was analyzed at Bombay by Dr. Giraud, with the following result:--

Water 6·88 Azotized matter, with ammoniacal salts 38·75 Fixed alkaline salts 6· Sand 26·25 Sulphate of lime 3·77 Phosphate of lime 18·35 ------ 100·00 ------

Thus the quantity of phosphate of lime is very small, and it appears that the rains have washed it down, and that it has formed a stalactitic deposit on the surface of the rock beneath the guano. A cargo of this deposit was shipped and sold at Liverpool for 8_l._ a ton.

The composition of Peruvian guano is as follows:--

Water 13·73 Organic matter and ammoniacal salts 53·16 Phosphates 23·48 Alkaline salts 7·97 Sand 1·66 ------ 100.00 ------

Of Ichaboe guano:--

Water 24·21 Organic matter, and ammoniacal salts 39·30 Phosphates 30·00 Alkaline salts 4·19 Sand 2·30 ------ 100·00 ------

[364] The Peruvian Government contracted three loans in London between 1822 and 1825, amounting to 1,816,000_l._, bearing interest at 6 per cent.

No interest was paid from 1825 to 1849, when the sales of guano had greatly increased the resources of Peru. In 1849 Señor Osma made an agreement with the bondholders to issue New Bonds at 4 per cent. per annum, the rate to increase 1/2 per cent. annually up to 6 per cent. Arrears of interest, about 2,615,000_l._, were to be capitalized, and Deferred Bonds to be issued to represent 75 per cent. of these arrears, and to bear interest at 1 per cent. per annum, increasing 1/2 per cent. annually up to 3 per cent.

In 1852 the Congress authorised General Mendiburu to effect a loan in London for 2,600,000_l._ to redeem the remainder of the 6 per cent. loan, and to refund other home and Chile debts.

The annual interest and sinking fund amount, respectively, to 267,000_l._ and 82,000_l._; the payment of which is secured on the profits of guano sold in Great Britain.

There is also a French loan of 800,000_l._ secured on the profits of guano sold in France.

The whole foreign debt of Peru amounted to 4,491,042_l._ in 1857; and the domestic debt to 4,835,708_l._ The foreign debt is annually reduced by means of a sinking fund.

[365] _Memorias de los Vireyes que han gobernado el Peru._ (Lima, 1859.)

[366] After his death 22 wounds were found on his body, and 2 bullets lodged.

[367] Mr. Howard has recently obtained 8·5 per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen of red bark.

[368] There is no ascertained law by which many of the species of the chinchona genus are thus limited to narrow zones as regards latitude. Mr. Spruce mentions that on the lower regions of the Andes of Pasto and Popayan, in New Granada, there are the conditions of climate and altitude requisite for the growth of _C. succirubra_, but it has not been found there.

[369] This is not the same as the _pata de gallinazo_ of Huanuco, which has been named by Mr. Howard _C. Peruviana_.

[370] Mr. Cross sowed eight of the seeds; one began to germinate on the fourth day, and at the end of a fortnight four seeds had pushed their radicles. In three weeks one had the seed-leaves completely developed; and on the twenty-eighth day after sowing, the last of the eight pushed its radicle. Eight chinchona-seeds, gathered by Mr. Spruce in 1859, were sown at Guayaquil, which had remained nine months in his herbarium. Of these four germinated, which clearly shows that well-ripened and properly-dried seeds do not lose their vitality for a much longer period than their excessive delicacy would lead one to suspect.

[371] 1. _Notes of a visit to the Chinchona Forests_, by R. Spruce, Esq., printed by the Linnæan Society, vol. iv. of their _Proceedings_.

2. Mr. Spruce's _Report to the Under Secretary of State for India_, Oct. 12, 1860.

3. _Report of the Expedition to procure Plants and Seeds of the Chinchona succirubra_, by R. Spruce, Esq., Sept. 22, 1861.

[372] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for India, dated July 9, 1861.

[373] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for India, dated Dec. 13, 1860.

[374] Smyth's _Journey from Lima to Para_, p. 63.

[375] Herndon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 126.

[376] Herndon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 136.

[377] Smyth, p. 115; who says that, according to a register which had been kept there, it rains at Casapi on more than half the days of the year.

"From May to November the sun shines very powerfully in the valley of Chinchao, and consequently the soil, when it is cleared of wood, becomes so parched that its surface opens in chinks, but underneath it always preserves humidity, and therefore needs no irrigation. From November to May it rains much, sometimes six or seven days without intermission."--Dr. A. Smith's _Peru as It Is_, ii. p. 57.

[378] Of the identity of the species collected by Mr. Pritchett there is no doubt. He brought home specimens from the trees whence the seeds were obtained, which have been examined by Mr. Howard, and proved to belong to _C. nitida_, _C. micrantha_, and _C. Peruviana_. The barks also have been found to contain a satisfactory percentage of alkaloids. Some further particulars respecting these species have already been given in chap. ii. p. 30-35.

[379] Pavon gives its height at from 18 to 24 feet, and 8 to 9 inches in diameter.

[380] They yield the _crown bark_ of commerce.

[381] Seemann's _Voyage of H. M. S. Herald_, i. p. 177. For some further particulars respecting the chinchona region of Loxa, see chap. ii. p. 21-25.

[382] _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon._ _C. Chahuarguera_ and _C. crispa_.

[383] Mr. Cross transmitted the following dried specimens of the parts of chinchona-trees from Loxa:--

1. Very characteristic specimens of the bark, leaves, flowers, and capsules of _C. Condaminea_ (_C. Chahuarguera_, Pavon). This kind yields the rusty crown bark of commerce.

2. Bark, leaves, and flowers of _C. crispa_, Tafalla, a kind which is included in the _C. Condaminea_, H. and B. It yields the _quina fina de Loxa_, or _cascarilla crespilla_.

3. Bark and leaves of _C. Lucumæfolia_ of Pavon, from Zamora. This is the _cascarilla de hoja de lucma_ of the natives. Mr. Cross made no attempt to collect the seeds, as this species is comparatively worthless.

[384] My collection of dried specimens is deposited in the museum and herbarium at Kew. It consists of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of _C. Calisaya_; leaves and flowers of _C. micrantha_; leaves and fruit of _C. Caravayensis_; fruit of _Pimentelia glomerata_; and bark from the branches of almost every species of chinchona and allied genera in the Caravayan forests.

Mr. Spruce's collection of all the parts of _C. succirubra_ is in the herbarium at Kew.

Mr. Pritchett's collection of leaves, fruit, and bark of _C. nitida_, _C. micrantha_, _C. Peruviana_, and _C. obovata_, is in the possession of Mr. Howard.

Mr. Cross's dried specimens of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of _C. Condaminea_ (_C. Chahuarguera_ of Pavon), bark, leaves, and flowers of _C. crispa_ of Tafalla, and bark and leaves of _C. Lucumæfolia_, are partly in my possession, partly in that of Mr. Howard, and partly in that of Mr. Veitch.

[385] Six cases of chinchona-plants from this depôt were despatched to Ceylon by the mail of March 4, 1862.

[386] See Fortune's _Tea Districts_, chap. xxi. p. 358-9.

[387] Mr. Cross says that Wardian cases, as they are at present constructed, are notoriously unfit for the growth of plants of any description. He adds that the plants must be healthy root and top before they are deposited in the cases. They ought to be exposed for at least a month to the full action of the sun and atmosphere, so that the juices, stems, and leaves may be fully developed and matured. Plants taken out of hothouses, or from dense forests, are not in a fit state to be sent away immediately in Wardian cases. They are then "blanched," and are easily affected by adverse influences, such as excess of moisture or drought.

[388] In October, 1861, the _Schinus molle_ plants were 3 feet high; and the chirimoyas 15 inches. Plants of both have been sent to the gardens at Bangalore.

[389] Seemann's _Voyage of the Herald_, i. p. 171.

[390] These 11 classes are:--1. The _Kirüm Nairs_, who are agriculturists, clerks, and accountants, and do the cooking on all public occasions, a sure sign of transcendent rank. 2. The _Sudra Nairs_. 3. The _Charnadus_. 4. The _Villiums_, who are palkee-bearers to Namburis and Rajahs. 5. The _Wattacotas_, or oil-makers. 6. The _Atticourchis_, or cultivators. 7. The _Wallacutras_, or barbers. 8. The _Wallateratas_, or washermen. 9. The _Tunars_, or tailors. 10. The _Andoras_, or pot-makers. 11. The _Taragons_, or weavers, who are very low in the scale, for even a potter must purify himself if he chances to touch a weaver.--Buchanan, ii. p. 408.

[391] Buchanan.

[392] Temulporum and Palghaut.

[393] They range from 12 to 60 reas, or 6 pies to 2 annas 5 pies per tree.

[394] The value of the exported nuts, kernels, oil, and coir of the cocoanuts in 1859, was 157,995_l._

[395] Drury's _Useful Plants of India_.

[396] The best soil for ginger-cultivation is red earth free from gravel. At the commencement of the monsoon beds of 10 or 12 feet by 3 or 4 are formed, in which holes are dug a foot apart, which are filled with manure. The roots, hitherto carefully buried under sheds, are dug out, chipped into suitable sizes for planting (1-1/2 to 2 inches long), and buried in the holes. The bed is then covered with a thick layer of green leaves, which serve as manure, while they keep the beds from too much dampness. Rain is requisite, but the beds must be kept from inundation, and drains are therefore cut between them. The roots or rhizomes, when old, are scalded, scraped, and dried, and thus form the white ginger of commerce.--Drury's _Useful Plants of India_.

[397] The tallipot or fan-palm (_Corypha umbraculifera_) has a stem 60 or 70 feet high, crowned with enormous fan-shaped leaves, with 40 or 50 pairs of segments. These fronds, when dried, are very strong, and are used for hats and umbrellas. The petiole is seven feet long, and the blade six feet long and thirteen feet broad.

[398] The sumach-tree (_Cæsalpinia coriaria_) was introduced into India from America, by Dr. Wallich, in 1842. The pods are much used for tanning purposes.

[399] _Nil_, blue, and _giri_, a mountain; from the blue _Justitias_ which cover many of the hill-slopes.

[400] _Report of Captain J. Ouchterlony, Superintendent of the Neilgherry Survey in 1848._

[401] Ferdosi.

[402] Dr. Wight says that this plant might be collected in vast quantities with little trouble or expense, and yields an excellent red dye.

[403] This nettle is frequent all over the higher ranges of the Neilgherries. The bark yields a fine strong fibre, which the natives obtain by first boiling the whole plant, to deprive it of its virulently-stinging properties, and then peeling the stalks. The textile material thus obtained is of great delicacy and strength.--Wight's _Spicelegium Neilgherense_. The fibre of the Neilgherry nettle is worth 200_l._ a ton in England, and its cultivation is likely to be a remunerative speculation.

[404] _Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, from the rough Notes of a German Missionary._ (Madras, 1856.)

[405] _Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todars of the Nilagiri Mountains_, by the Rev. F. Metz, of the German Evangelical Mission. (Madras, 1857.)

[406] _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_, by Captain H. Congreve, 1847. Also, Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. The German missionaries believe that these cairns were the work of the Kurumbers, another wild hill tribe.

[407] Todars pay two taxes to Government in return, on female buffaloes and on grazing land, both small in amount.

[408] _Raggee_, however, is the least nourishing of all the cereals, although it forms the chief part of the diet of the poorer classes in Mysore and on the Neilgherries. In good seasons it yields 120-fold, but it is very poor fare.

[409] In 1807 Buchanan mentioned the Badagas of the Neilgherries, as gatherers of honey and wax in the hills south of Wynaad.--ii. p. 246 and p. 273.

[410] Literally "one stone village."

[411] The great Tamil scholar.

[412] _Hooli_, a tiger in the Badaga language; and _cul_, a rock or stone in Tamil and Canarese. _Pili_ is a tiger in Tamil.

[413] Mr. Fowler, in his evidence before a Committee of the House of Commons, gave 2500 to 4000 feet as the most favourable elevation for the growth of coffee.

[414] There are 11,386 acres of land under coffee cultivation in Wynaad, 7358 owned by Europeans, and 4028 by natives: of these 7224 are liable to assessment, that is, the coffee-trees are in bearing.

[415] Besides a _jemmi_ fee on Government land, of eight annas an acre.

[416] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of Southern India_, p. 16.

[417] Several species of _Chinchonæ_ flourish at altitudes from 8000 to over 10,000 feet above the sea, and within the region of frequent frosts.

[418] Karsten.

[419] Smyth's _Journey from Lima to Para_, p. 115.

[420] Dr. A. Smith's _Peru as It Is_, ii. p. 57.

[421] Mr. Spruce's _Report_, p. 27.

[422] Called _Cinchona excelsa_ by Dr. Roxburgh, but excluded from the list of Chinchonæ by Dr. Wallich, who gave the plant its present name.

[423] In the _Mahabharata_ the five Pandus, who contended with the 100 Kurus or vices, were--Yudisthira, the personification of modesty; and his brothers Arjuna, or courage; Bhima, or strength; Nakal, or beauty; and Sahadeva, or harmony. The conversation between Arjuna and the incarnate deity Krishna, in the _Bhagavat Gita_, an episode in the _Mahabharata_, is perhaps the finest passage in the whole range of Sanscrit literature.

[424] _Cæsalpinia sappan_, a handsome tree, with curiously-shaped pods. It yields a valuable dye.

[425] Called _jowaree_, in Bengalee; _jonna_, in Telugu; _yawanul_, in Sanscrit; and _doora_, in Egypt.

[426] _Dolichos lablab_, a kind of pulse much eaten by the poor people.

[427] Cotton (_Gossypium Indicum_) is called _parati_, in Tamil; _putti_, in Telugu; and _kurpas_, in Sanscrit.

[428] The former of these grains has already been mentioned. The latter is _Panicum spicatum_, or spiked millet. It is called _bajree_, in Guzeratee; and _kunghoo_, in Sanscrit; and is made into cakes and porridge.

[429] "The black cotton soil seems to have arisen from the decomposition of basalt and trap. When dry it is dark-coloured, and glistens from the presence of nearly pure grains of silica. It possesses extraordinary attraction for water, and forms with it a most tenacious mud."--_Dr. Forbes Watson._

[430] "The district of Coimbatore lies opposite the great gap in the Peninsular chain between the southern slopes of the Nilgiri mountains, and the northern face of those of Travancor. Across this depression the S.W. monsoon has almost a free passage to the eastward; but the great elevation of the mountains on both sides, and the absence of any considerable hills in the district, cause the monsoon wind to pass over without depositing much of its moisture; and, though the climate is humid, the rainfall is very trifling. During the N.E. monsoon the hills of Salem intercept the moisture."--Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 132.

[431] Lindley's _Theory and Practice of Horticulture_, p. 487.

[432] "This is an assurance which no private tenant in any country, not even in England, has obtained."--_East India Company's Memorandum_, 1858, p. 17.

[433] _Koda_, a shade or umbrella; and _karnal_, a jungle.

[434] Literally "Fruit-hills."

[435] Yet I missed the _Berberis Mahonia_, which in the Neilgherries is not found beyond the limits of the S.W. monsoon.

[436] For short accounts of the Pulney hills, see--

1. _Memoir of the Varagherry Hills_, by Capt. B. S. Ward, _Madras Journal of Literature and Science_, Oct. 1837, vol. vi. p. 280.

2. _Observations on the Pulney Mountains_, by Dr. Wight, _Madras Journal_, v. p. 280.

3. _Report on the Pulneys_, by Lieut. R. H. Beddome, _Madras Journal_, 1857.

4. Sir Charles Trevelyan's _Official Tour in the South of India_. He says, "It is an important fact that, as regards much the largest portion of this tract, there is no claim to the soil which can interfere with the establishment of the most absolute freehold."

[437] For a very interesting account of the Anamallay hills, see _Forests and Gardens of South India_, p. 289-302, by Dr. Cleghorn, Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency.

[438] Tamil is spoken throughout the Carnatic, in the southern part of Travancore, and north part of Ceylon, by about 10,000,000 souls. Telugu, the first of the Dravidian languages in euphonious sweetness, is spoken in the Ceded districts, Kurnool, part of the Nizam's territory, and part of Nagpore; Canarese in Canara and Mysore; and Malayalam in Malabar. The whole Dravidian race numbers 30,000,000 souls. The Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam languages have each a system of written characters peculiar to itself: the Canarese letters are borrowed from the Telugu.

[439] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. Preface, p. v.

[440] _Lectures on the Science of Language_, p. 341.

[441] Adam Smith says that numerals are among the most abstract ideas which the human mind is capable of forming. See a paper read before the Ethnological Society in Feb. 1862, _On the numerals as evidence of the progress of civilization_, by Mr. Crawford.

[442] Caldwell, p. 2.

[443] _Kolki_ of the Periplus; perhaps _Kilkhar_, on the Coromandel coast, opposite Rameswaram.

[444] In Sanscrit.

[445] In 1802 a pot of Roman coins was dug up near Dharaparum, in Coimbatore, of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, with _Cæsarea_ marked on them, the place where they were struck. Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. 318.

One coin, a Roman _aureus_, has been found in a cairn on the Neilgherry hills.--Captain H. Congreve's _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_.

[446] The author of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea mentions Nelcynda (Neliceram), Paralia (Malabar), and Comari (Cape Comorin), as under King Pandion (Regio Pandionis); and Dr. Vincent thinks that the Pandyan Kings of Madura lost Malabar between the time of the author of the Periplus and that of Ptolemy; because the latter does not allude to Pandion until Cape Comorin is passed. Chira is the modern Coimbatore, and the capital of the Chira state was at Caroor. The state of Chola is the modern Tanjore. The word _Pandya_ is probably of Sanscrit origin, but the masculine termination of _on_ is Tamil.

[447] "In Tamil few Brahmins have written anything worthy of preservation: but the language has been cultivated and developed with immense zeal and success by native Sudras."--_Caldwell_, p. 33. Tamil literature, now extant, dates from the eighth or ninth century: p. 68.

[448] Dr. Ainslie, in his _Materia Medica_, gives a list of twenty works by Aghastya, chiefly on medical subjects, some of them translated from Sanscrit.

[449] For a list of kings of Madura, of the Pandyan and Naik dynasties, see a paper in the Asiatic Society's Journals, by H. H. Wilson; from MS. collections of the late Colonel Mackenzie.

[450] Tanjore was seized by the Mahrattas in 1675. The last Naik sovereign of Madura was installed as a tributary of the Nawab of the Carnatic.

[451] Namely the _Michelia Champacca_, a golden-coloured flower with a strong aromatic smell, also dedicated to Krishna; the mango-flower-called _amra_; the _Pavonia odorata_ with a sweet flower, called _bulla_; the _Strychnos potatorum_; and the _Mesua ferea_, a guttiferous plant, with a flower white outside, and yellow inside the tube, with a smell like sweet-briar.

[452] While on the subject of sacred Hindu plants, I may also mention the _soma_ juice, so often alluded to in the Vedas, which comes from a leafless asclepiad (_Sarcostemma viminale_) with white flowers in terminal umbels, which appear during the rains, in the Deccan: the holy _kusa_-grass (_Poa cynosuroides_), made into ropes in the N.W. provinces: the peepul-tree, the banyan, the neem (_Melia Azadyraclita_): the _Cratæva religiosa_, specially sacred to Siva: the _Nerium odorum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Cæsalpinia pulcherrima_, sacred to Siva: the _Guettarda speciosa_, sacred to Siva and Vishnu: the _Origanum marjoranum_, a labiate plant sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Caryophyllum inophyllum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Pandanus odoratissimus_, sacred to Vishnu and Mariama, but offensive to Siva: the _Artemisia astriaka_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Ocimum sanctum_ or _toolsu_, a labiate plant with a white flower, specially sacred to Vishnu and Krishna: and the _Chrisanthemum Indicum_, a yellow flower, sacred to Vishnu and Siva.

[453] Mr. Caldwell considers that these lines do not allude to any of the avaturs of the Hindu Deities, but that they are borrowed, in some unexplained way, from Christianity.

[454] In Fergusson's _Architecture_, i. p. 105, the hall is represented with an arched roof, in a sketch from Daniell's _Views of Hindostan_.

[455] There was a Portuguese Jesuit mission, with two Christian churches, established at Madura during the reign of Tirumalla Naik. It was founded by Robert de Nobilibus, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmin, and the missionaries wore the sacred thread, declaring themselves to be Brahmins from the West.

[456] The Brahmins of course are of mixed blood, through intercourse with Tamil women. Children are therefore Sudras, and are not Brahmins until they are invested with the sacred thread.

[457] From _Parei_, a drum, as they act as drummers at funerals.

[458] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_, Appendix, p. 491.

[459] _Proceedings of the South India Missionary Conference_, 1858, p. 283.

[460] _Reports connected with the duties of the Corps of Engineers of the Madras Presidency_, 1846, vol. ii., p. 108. _Report of Captain Bell_, p. 117.

[461] There was formerly a peculiar system of collecting land revenue prevalent in Tanjore and part of Tinnevelly, called _Oolungoo_, by which the Government demand was dependent on the current price of grain. A standard grain assessment was fixed on each village, and also a standard rate according to which the grain demand was to be commuted into money; but if prices rose more than 10 per cent. above the standard commutation rate, or fell more than 5 per cent. below it, the Government, and not the cultivator, was to receive the profit and to bear the loss. The advantage of the system was that the Government participated in the benefit of high prices with the cultivator, while the latter was relieved from loss when prices were much depressed.--Mill's _India in 1858_, p. 119.

This Oolungoo system was introduced into Tanjore in 1825. It was found that the system was fertile in fraud and corruption, especially in connection with the determination of the annual price, and with claims for alleged deficiency of produce. In July, 1859, the Government resolved to abolish the Oolungoo system, and to substitute a fixed money demand, similar to that which prevails in all other districts. By 1860 this change had been completed, both in Tanjore and Tinnevelly.--_Principal Measures of Sir Charles Trevelyan's Administration at Madras_ (_Madras_, 1860), p. 55.

[462] The largest temple in Southern India, next to that of Madura.

[463] From _Kar_, black, and _ur_ a town, in Tamil.

[464] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 124.

[465] Ibid., i. p. 133.

[466] Dr. Cleghorn states that the Seegoor forest has been much exhausted by unscrupulous contractors. "It is important," he adds, "that it should be allowed to recover, as it is the main source of supply to Ootacamund for housebuilding purposes." Captain Morgan has been placed in charge of it, and it is hoped that the sale of sandal and jungle-wood will cover the expenses, while the young teak is coming on for future supply, P. 36.

[467] The areca-palm requires a low moist situation, with rather a sandy soil, either under the _bund_ of a tank, or in a position otherwise favourable for irrigation. The seeds are put into holes six feet apart, and the tree comes into bearing in about eight years. It yields fruit for fifty years, and, when in full bearing, produces 1-1/2 lbs. of nuts.

[468] The Lingayets are members of the _Vira Saiva_ sect, or worshippers of Siva as the _Linga_, a representation of which they carry round their necks. The sect is numerous in the central and southern parts of the peninsula. It is of modern origin, having been founded by a Brahmin of Kalyan in the middle of the 12th century. Its members deny the sanctity of the Brahmins and the authority of the Vedas, recognize various divinities, and virtually abolish the distinction of castes and the inferiority of women. They are divided into _Aradhyas_, by birth Brahmins, and often well versed in Sanscrit literature; _Jangamas_, who have a literature of their own, written in Karnata and Telugu; and Bhaktas.--Wilson's _Indian Glossary_, p. 311.

[469] The whole population of Coorg is about 119,160.

[470] Namely, the _Amma Kodagas_ or Cauvery Brahmins; the _Kodagas_ or chief tribe; the _Himbokulu_ or herdsmen; the _Heggade_ or cultivators; the _Ari_ or carpenters; the _Badige_ or smiths; the _Kuruba_ or honey gatherers; the _Kavati_ or jungle cultivators; the _Budiya_ or drawers of toddy from the _Caryota urens_ palm; the _Meda_ or basket-makers; the _Kaleya_ or farm-labourers; the _Holeya_ or slaves; and the _Yerawa_ or slaves from Malabar, cheaper than cattle.

[471] _Coorg_, by Rev. H. Moegling. (Mangalore, 1855.)

[472] Observations by Dr. R. Baikie. _Madras Journal_, 1837, vi. p. 342.

[473]

1860-61.

_Revenue of Coorg._ | _Expenditure._ | Land revenue £14,727 | General expenditure £10,211 Excise and stamps 3,611 | Public works 1,153 Income tax 98 | Miscellaneous 8,300 | ------ | ------ £26,736 | £11,364 ------ | ------

[474] Seemann's _Popular History of the Palms_, p. 134.

[475] Moegling's _Coorg_, pp. 74-77; also Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. 511, and Drury's _Useful Plants of India_.

[476] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of South India_, pp. 126-44, where the official correspondence respecting _kumari_ will be found.

[477] _Cleghorn_, p. 11. Poon spars are also obtained from _Stercula fœtida_, a tree with brownish flowers, emitting a most horrible smell.

[478] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 126.

[479] The inhabitants of the Laccadive islands are Sooni Mussulmans. They have some songs commemorating the introduction of Islam 500 years ago, but do not know when the Beebee of Cannanore got possession. Menakoy, the largest island, is a mass of coral 5-1/2 miles in diameter. The land is less than a mile wide, the rest being a reef encircling a large lagoon. Within a hundred yards of the reef there is no bottom. The lagoon, which abounds in turtle and fish, has three entrances from the sea, one of which has a depth of two fathoms. The soil of the island is a coarse powdered coral, with a little vegetable matter. It is quite flat, no part being destitute of vegetation; the south thickly covered with cocoanut-trees and underwood, and the north more sparingly. Rats abound, there are some cats, a few cows and goats, large grey cranes, ducks occasionally, and the mosquitos are fearful.

The population is 2500; of these 116 are _Malikans_, the aristocracy of the islands, who own vessels trading to Bengal. The _Koornakar_, or agent of the Beebee, is generally a _Malikan_; he collects rents, and superintends her traffic. The _Malikans_ have the exclusive privilege of wearing shoes, live in large houses built round courtyards, and possess English quadrants, charts, compasses, and telescopes. Below them are 180 _Malummies_, or pilots, a rank obtained by merit. Then 1107 _Klasies_, forming the bulk of the population, who are small landed proprietors, go to sea for regular wages, but are very independent. Then 583 _Maylacherries_, or tree-climbers for hire. The head-men are elected by the people. The islanders have six or seven vessels fit for the Bengal trade, and three or four for coasting. They go with money to Goa and Mangalore for salt and rice, with coir to Bengal, with cocoanuts to Galle, and bring Calcutta cloths home.--Mr. Thomas's _Report_.

[480] The gross exports of cotton from the ports in the various districts of the Madras Presidency in 1859-60 were as follows:--

Vizagapatam 40,758 lbs. Valued at £783 Gosavery 3,000 " 36 Krishna 198,670 " 1,591 Nellore 21,075 " 230 Fort St. George 7,960,368 " 128,648 Tinnevelly 18,562,546 " 274,380 Malabar 2,509,132 " 49,900 N. and S. Canara 33,264,498 " 504,905 ----------- -------- Total 62,560,047 " 960,473 ----------- --------

In 1860-61 the total export of cotton from Bombay amounted to 355,393,894 lbs.; of which 278,868,126 lbs. went to Great Britain.

In the same year the ports of Malabar and Canara sent 55,182,181 lbs. to Bombay.

[481] In lat. 15° N. the western ghauts are not more than 1100 feet above the sea.

[482] The trap formation of the northern part of the ghauts terminates in 18° N., and is succeeded by laterite.

[483] _Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay for 1838_, i. p. 92.

[484] Or _Gnidia eriocephala_ of Graham.--Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 221.

[485] Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 93.

[486] Ibid., p. 275.

[487] The following list of shrubs, trees, and ferns growing at Mahabaleshwur has been kindly furnished by Mr. Dalzell.

LIST OF SHRUBS AND TREES GROWING ON THE HIGHEST GROUND AT MAHABALESHWUR.

Eugenia Jambolanum. Memecylon tinctorium. Mæsa Indica. Pygeum Zeylanicum. Indigofera pulchella. Actinodaphne (2 sp.). Bradleia lanceolaria. Elæagnus Kologa. Osyris Wightiana. Lasiosiphon speciosus. Salix tetrasperma. Callicarpa cana. Strobilanthus asperrimus and callosus. Ligustrum Neilgherrense. Olea dioica and Roxburgiana. Ilex Wightiana. Maba nigrescens. Diospyros (3 sp.) Hopea spicata and racemosa. Embelia ribes and glandulifera. Notonia grandiflora. Artemisia parviflora and Indica.

CHINCHONACEÆ.

Grumilea vaginans. Pavetta Indica. Ixora nigricans and parviflora. Canthium umbellatum. Vangueria edulis. Santia venulosa. Wendlandia Notoniana. Hymenodictyon obovatum and excelsum. Griffithia fragrans. Randia dumetorum.

FERNS AT MAHABALESHWUR.

Lastrea densa and cochleata. Nephrodium molle. Sagenia hippocrepis. Athyrium filix fœmina. Asplenium planicaule and erectum. Diplazium esculentum. Pteris quadrialata, lucida, and aquilina. Campteria Rottleriana. Adiantum lunulatum. Cheilanthes farinosa. Polypodium quercifolium. Pleopeltis nuda. Pœcilopteris virens. Leptochilus lanceolatus. Acrostichum aureum. Lygodium scandens. Osmunda regalis.

[488] Every Hindu wears a sect-mark on his forehead. These marks are thick daubs of white earth, red ochre, or sandal-wood, and there are several forms according to the different sects. The grand distinctions are between worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, the latter wearing his mark horizontal, and the former perpendicular. Any conical or triangular mark is a symbol of the _linga_. Two perpendicular lines and a dot between, denotes a worshipper of Vishnu as Rama or Krishna, &c. &c.

[489] Cleghorn, p. 222. Dalzell, p. 86.

[490] Or _Euphorbia neriifolia_. Dalzell, p. 226.

[491] _Account of the village of Lony_, by T. Coats. _Transactions of the Bombay Literary Society_, 1823, vol. iii. p. 172.

[492] The _cumboo_ of the Madras Presidency (_Holcus spicatus_).

[493] The _cholum_ of Madras (_Sorghum vulgare_).

[494] The natives of India are supplied, by Nature, with an endless variety of condiments to season their food, many of them growing wild. In the different parts of India I noticed as many as twenty-five ingredients used in curries and porridges. The tender leaves and legumes of the _agati_ (_Agati grandiflora_); oil from the _elloopa_ fruit (_Bassia longifolia_); young unripe gourds of the _Benincasa cerifera_; the _papaw_ fruit; cocoanut-oil; the leaves of _Canthium parviflorum_; capsicums; cinnamon; leaves of _Cocculus villosus_; turmeric; cardamoms; _jhingo_ (_Luffa acutangula_); the fruit of _Momordica charantia_; green fruit of _Morinda citrifolia_; the legumes of the horse-radish-tree (_Hyperanthera Moringa_); the plantain; the tender shoots of the lotus; the pickled seeds of a _Nymphæa_; the leaves of _Premna latifolia_; berries of _Solanum verbascifolium_; legumes of _Trigonella tetrapetala_; the white centre of the leaf culms of lemon-grass; the _Lablab cultratus_; onions; the fruit of _Sapota elingoides_ in the Neilgherries; the _moong_ (_Phaseolus mungo_); and many other pulses.

[495] The ploughs, and the carts on wheels bringing home the food from the fields, are mentioned in the 1st Ashtaka of the Rig Veda.

[496] Dr. Forbes Watson has made some very interesting calculations on the amount of pulses rich in nitrogen, which must be added to rice and other cereals comparatively poor in that constituent, in order that the mixture may contain the same proportion of carbonous to nitrogenous matter as is found in wheat, namely six to one. (See Table, next page.)

The cereals which I saw growing in the peninsula of India, besides rice, maize, wheat, and barley, were:--

1. _Setaria Italica_, called _tennay_ in Tamil, and _samee_ by the tribes on the Neilgherry hills, which is the Italian millet. The seeds are used for cakes and porridge. In the Deccan it is only cultivated in small quantities for the ryot's own use, and seldom for market. The grain is very small.

2. _Panicum Miliaceum_, called _varagoo_ on the Pulney hills, and _warree_ in the Deccan: a small millet, generally sown broadcast on the sides of hills. In the Neilgherries it is used as an offering to the gods, mixed with honey, and wrapped in plantain-leaves.

3. _Panicum pilosum_, or _badlee_, will grow in the worst soil, but is not much cultivated, unless the rains happen to be too scanty for other crops. The seed is very small, forming a long hairy spike.

4. _Cynosurus corocanus_, or _ragee_, is a very prolific grain, and forms the staple food of the poorer classes in Mysore, and on the slopes of the ghauts. It requires a light good soil, from which the water readily flows. In the Deccan they raise it in seed-beds, and transplant when a few inches high. It is made into dark brown cakes.

5. _Holcus spicatus_, or spiked millet, called _cumboo_ in Madras, and _bajree_ in the Deccan, where it is the chief food of the inhabitants, and is considered very nutritious.

6. _Sorghum vulgare_, or great millet, called _cholum_ in Madras, and _jowaree_ in the Deccan. It is made into cakes and porridge, and the stalks, which contain sugar, are excellent fodder for cattle. It grows six or eight feet high, and soon exhausts the soil, so that two crops are never taken in succession.

7. _Sesamum Indicum_, or gingelee oil-plant, called _till_ in the Deccan. Oil is expressed from the seeds, which are also toasted and ground into meal for food. In the Deccan it is sown on gravelly or red soil, and the plants grow three or four feet high. Presents of the seed, made up in little boxes, are exchanged by friends on the day that the sun takes its northerly declination; and they are also acceptable as offerings to the god Mahadeo or Siva.

With these seven grains, the following pulses are usually raised:--

1. _Cicer arietinum_, or Bengal gram, the seeds of which are eaten, and the oxalic acid, which exudes from all parts of the plant, is used as vinegar for curries.

2. _Dolichos unifloris_, or horse gram, with grey seeds, used for feeding horses and cattle.

3. _Dolichos sinensis_, or _lobia_, a twining annual, with large pale violet flowers. The seeds are much used for food.

4. _Cajanus Indicus_, pigeon-pea, or _toor_. A shrub three to six feet high, with yellow papilionaceous flowers. This is an excellent pulse, and makes a good peas-pudding.

5. _Phaseolus mungo_, black gram, or _moong_. A nearly erect, hairy annual, with greenish-yellow flowers. It is much cultivated, and is a very important article of food.

6. _Phaseolus rostratus_, or _hullounda_, a twining plant, with large, deep rose-purple, papilionaceous flowers, grown in Malabar, and other parts of the peninsula.

7. Another kind of _moong_, called _ooreed_, with black and white seeds.

8. _Lablab cultratus_, a twining plant, with white, red, or purple papilionaceous flowers; much cultivated in gardens, and used for food.

9. _Dolichos lablab_, or _bulla_, a twining plant of which there are several varieties. The seeds are much eaten by the poorer classes when rice is dear, and are reckoned a wholesome substantial food. Cattle are very fond of the stalks. One variety, with white flowers, is cultivated in gardens, supported on poles, forming arbours about the doors of houses. The pods are eaten, but not the seeds.

[497] Built in 1749 by the Peishwa Balajee Bajee Rao.

[498] "The cultivation of the chinchona-trees may succeed in localities not appearing to offer exactly the same conditions regarding climate and the general character of the country as are peculiar to their native forests."--_Report by Dr. Brandis_ (Supplement to the _Calcutta Gazette_, August 31, 1861), p. 467.

[499] "Mr. McIvor deserves great credit for the manner in which he has laid out the garden. It is both a beautiful pleasure-ground, and a valuable public institution for the improvement of indigenous, and the naturalisation of foreign plants; and it has been formed from the commencement by Mr. McIvor, with great industry and artistic skill, out of a rude ravine."--_Minute by Sir Charles Trevelyan_, Feb. 24th, 1860.

[500] _Cleghorn_, p. 318.

[501] _Cleghorn_, p. 180 and 359.

[502] I have supplied Mr. McIvor with the following works on the chinchona-plants:--

1. Weddell's _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_.

2. Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_.

3. Poeppig's _Notes on the Chinchona Trees and Barks of Huanuco_.

4. Karsten's _Medicinal Chinchona Barks of New Granada_.

5. Markham's _Report of a Visit to the Chinchona Forests of Caravaya_.

6. Spruce's _Expedition to procure Seeds and Plants of C. succirubra_.

7. Pritchett's _Report on the Chinchona Plants of Huanuco_.

8. Cross's _Report on the C. Condaminea_.

9. Junghuhn's _Cultivation of the Quina-tree in Java_, 1859.

10. _Botanical Descriptions of Species of Chinchonæ now growing in India._

[503] _Order of the Madras Government_, July 3rd, 1861, No. 1328.

[504] _Secretary to the Government of India, to the Secretary to the Government of Fort St. George_, Dec. 9th, 1861.

[505] I sent a smaller parcel of C. Condaminea seeds in a letter, which arrived first at Ootacamund, in the middle of February. Sixteen days after sowing, twelve seeds were found to have germinated; and early in March 138 seedlings were up, or 30 per cent. of the total number of seeds sown. The large parcel of seeds arrived at Ootacamund on March 4th, and were sown at once. See p. 570.

[506] This is a variety of _C. nitida_.

[507] The chinchona-plantations were commenced in Java in December 1854. On the 31st of December, 1860, they had of

_C. Calisaya_ plants: 5510 in the germinating sheds. 1806 planted out. 1030 living cuttings. _C. lancifolia_ plants: 38 in the nursery sheds. 42 planted out. 28 living cuttings. ---- Total 8454

Their other species is worthless.--Mr. Fraser's _Report_, p. 2.

[508] "It is the height of improvidence for the collectors to strip off the bark from the roots, thus securing a worthless product at the expense of any possible future renovation of the tree."--_Howard_.

[509] See chap. iii. p. 58.

[510] This is provided for in Java by placing a shed over the young plants.

[511] Mr. McIvor informs me that the winter of 1861-62 was the coldest he has experienced since he came to the Neilgherry hills, a period of fourteen years.

[512] Spruce's _Report_, p. 23.

[513] Howard, _Nueva Quinologia_, Nos. 2 and 7.

[514] Cross's _Report_, p. 5.

[515] See also Weddell's _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 32.

[516] Mr. Howard thinks that the alkaloids are formed in the barks, by a reaction between ammonia and chincho-tannic acid. The alkaloids are pure in the bark of the branches, somewhat less so in that of the trunk, and most impure in that of the roots.--_Microscopic Observations_, p. 2.

[517] Howard.

[518] Spruce's _Report_, p. 83.

[519] Ibid., p. 27. See also _Karsten_, p. 20.

[520] _Karsten_, p. 20.

[521] Spruce's _Report_, p. 23.

[522] Lindley's _Theory and Practice of Horticulture_, p. 70.

[523] In quills from large branches there is more alkaloid than in the smaller branches: in the bark of the trunk the proportion is still further increased, but this diminishes in quantity and deteriorates in quality in the bark of the roots.--_Howard._

[524] Mr. McIvor reports the thickness of the bark of some of the young plants at Ootacamund to be nearly a quarter of an inch. The bark of quills of _C. Calisaya_ given me by Mr. Howard, as samples from a lot on sale, is only one-eighth of an inch in thickness.

[525] The only reason why the value of quill-bark is much less than that of _tabla_-bark is that the former is usually mixed with spurious barks. Otherwise the value of quill-bark would only be about threepence per lb. less than _tabla_-bark.

[526] Cinnamon is one of the plants which, like the chinchonæ, are cultivated solely for their bark. Mr. Thwaites, the Director of the Botanical Gardens in Ceylon, has supplied me with a few particulars respecting the cultivation of cinnamon. The young shoots are peeled twice during the year, at a particular period of growth, when the bark comes off readily. This time is known at once by the peelers, from the appearance of the young shoots, and the process of peeling is then a very expeditious one, with practised hands. Young plants are raised from seeds in nurseries, and planted six feet apart, when they are a foot or eighteen inches long. They will commonly bear peeling in three or four years after being transplanted, if in a favourable locality and properly attended to. The roots are earthed up frequently, to keep the soil loose and free from weeds. In 1858, 750,744 lbs. of cinnamon were exported from Ceylon, worth 37,537_l._ There are forty-nine cinnamon-gardens in the island.

[527] Mr. McIvor observes that the leaves of all the chinchona-plants at Ootacamund are exceedingly bitter to the taste, and he suggests that these leaves, which naturally fall off the trees in succession, may be turned to account by being imported to England as a substitute for hops in the manufacture of beer. They would no doubt prove a healthy ingredient in beer, but it remains to be proved whether their bitter would preserve it as well as hops.

[528] "Attacked with violent tertian ague, and without any medicine, in Pampa-yacu, I made use of the green bark direct from the chinchona-tree, which I peeled from one growing a few hundred steps distant; and although, in consequence of unavoidable exposure in the rainy season, and the very great exhaustion after eight months' wild forest life, the disease returned on three occasions, it was each time conquered within a week. The very unpleasant additional effect, in this case, of the green bark, of producing obstinate obstructions, demands consideration. It might be well obviated by a plentiful addition of Epsom salts to the infusion. After the first dose of this fresh and unadulterated remedy, a sensation of general well-being is felt, and after recovery, on the first excursion, one approaches the healing trees with warm feelings of gratitude, whose beautiful reddish blossoms appear in such quantities in January, and their round crowns can be distinguished at a distance."--Poeppig, _Reise_, ii. p. 223.

[529] _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 13.

[530] "From the unfitness of the 'Grey Bark' species for the production of quinine, comparatively small good will be likely to result from their naturalisation."--Howard, _Introduction_, p. xiii.

[531] _Quinine and Antiperiodics in their Therapeutic Relations_, by Dr. J. Macpherson (Calcutta, 1856), p. 27.

[532] There are 477 coffee estates in Ceylon; and in 1858-59 the quantity of coffee exported was 601,595 cwts., valued at 1,488,019_l._ In the same year the revenue was 654,961_l._, expenditure 594,382_l._, value of imports 3,444,889_l._, and of exports 2,328,790_l._

[533] See Mr. Thwaites's _Report_, dated Peradenia, Sept. 28th, 1861.

[534] I have taken the following brief notices of Sikkim, Bhotan, and the Khassya hills, from Dr. Hooker's _Flora Indica_, and _Himalayan Journals_.

[535] _Flora Indica_, i., p. 178.

[536] _Ibid._, i., p. 175.

[537] _Flora Indica_, i., p. 233. _Himalayan Journals_, ii., p. 277.

[538] _Report_ by Dr. Brandis, _Supplement to the Calcutta Gazette_, August 31st, 1861, No. 55, p. 467.

[539] _Quinine and Antiperiodics in their Therapeutic Relations_, by Dr. J. Macpherson (Calcutta, 1856).

[540] _Macpherson_, p. 2.

* * * * *

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES

Compound nouns, names, and hyphenated words are not consistent in the original text.

Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical errors.

Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed.

Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.

The caret symbol (^) has been used as in M^r.

All footnotes have been moved to the end of the text and renumbered.

Where possible tables have been included though at some aesthetic cost. Those tables simply too large to fit in this text version have been marked as illustrations.

* * * * *