CHAPTER XLI.

THE AFRICAN NEGROES.

Causes of the Inferiority of Negro Civilisation--Natural Capabilities of the Negro--Geographical Formation of Africa--Its Political Condition--Physical Conformation of the Negro--Fetishism-- The Rain-Doctor--The Medicine-Man--Religious Observances-- Gift-Offerings--Human Sacrifices--Ornaments--The Pelélé--The Bonnians--Their Barbarous Condition--The Town of Okolloma--Negroes of the Lake Regions--The Iwanza--Slavery--A Miserable Group.

With the exception of the narrow strip of territory fertilized by the annual inundations of the Nile, where stately pyramids and the ruins of vast palaces and temples proclaim the ancient glories of Egypt; or of the coast-lands of the Mediterranean, where once Carthage reigned and Utica flourished, Africa has ever been a region without influence on the progressive march of mankind. From the vast and still partly unknown countries inhabited by the Negro or the Kaffer no gleam of genius has ever shone forth to enlighten the world; no invention has ever proceeded for the benefit of the human race; no individual has ever risen to eminence in science or in art; but all, from generation to generation, has ever been one dull monotonous scene of ignorance, barbarism, and stagnation.

As to the causes of this stationary unprogressive state opinions are greatly divided, for while some authorities consider the African as decidedly inferior in intellect to the more favoured races of Europe, he is according to others merely the victim of unfortunate circumstances, which have never allowed the latent germs of improvement to quicken into life? That there is no defect in his organisation to account for his low condition, is sufficiently proved by the celebrated physiologist, Tiedemann, who found, as the result of numerous measurements and examinations, that his brain is by no means smaller than that of the European, and that its form and structure are identical.

Travellers and missionaries who have had the best opportunities of forming a just estimate of the character and capacities of the Negroes, describe them as social, generous, and confiding. No one, such is their opinion, can live among them without being impressed with their natural energy of character, their shrewdness and close observation, the cunning with which they can drive a bargain, and the perfect adroitness with which they practise upon the unsuspecting credulity of white men. They have long since risen above the hunter life, have fixed habitations, cultivate the soil for the means of subsistence, have herds of domestic animals, construct for themselves houses sufficient to protect them alike from the scorching heat of the sun and the chilly damps of night, show a taste for the mechanical arts, a surprising skill in the fabrication of implements of warfare and articles of ornament, and at the same time a decided taste and aptitude for commercial pursuits.

The Southern Kaffers gradually pass through the transition of intermediate tribes into the pure typical equatorial Negroes, and travellers have been astonished at the acuteness of intellect displayed by the Zulus, Betchuanas, and other Kaffer nations. Of the Mandingoes, a pure Negro race, inhabiting parts of Senegambia and Upper Guinea, shrewd observers assure us that no one who has had personal intercourse with them, can have the least doubt as to their intellectual equality with Europeans. These few examples, to which many others might be added, sufficiently prove that there is no wide impassable gulf between the negro and the white races.

The aboriginal Africans are indeed averse to all abstract discussions, but they have excellent memories, lively imaginations, much instinctiveness, and very close observation. With the exception of the Veys, who have recently invented an alphabet for themselves (a circumstance in itself sufficient to establish their claims to a high degree of intelligence), none of the nations along the sea coast regions have any written literature, but this is not to be set down as a mark of mental imbecility. Their thoughts, as a matter of necessity, must operate in a comparatively narrow circle; but it does not follow that they are less active on that account. They have abundant stores of unwritten lore, allegories, legends, traditionary stores, fables--and many of their proverbs bear testimony to their sound good sense.

Men of remarkable ability have risen up among the Africans from time to time, as well as amongst other portions of the human family. Some have excited the admiration of large districts by their wisdom, others have been the wonder of their generation by their personal prowess and deeds of arms, but the total absence of literature leads to the loss of all former experience and the lessons of the sage and the feats of the hero have been alike forgotten.

The detractors of the Negroes have generally formed their opinion upon the most unfavourable specimens of the race, upon tribes living in a pestilential climate along the sultry coasts of Guinea, upon the victims of oppression, upon slaves or the descendants of slaves. But everywhere we find physical and moral inferiority resulting from conditions which cramp the natural energies of man, and among the most highly civilised nations a considerable part of the population shows the fatal stigmas of ignorance and want in a stunted growth and a blighted intellect. It is evidently as erroneous to judge of the whole Negro race by its inferior representatives, as it would be to measure the English nation by the low standard of the refuse of our cities. The reasons for the torpid state of Africa, when compared with the ancient civilisation of Asia or the progressive march of Europe, must therefore be sought for, not in an organic and consequently incurable incapacity for higher attainments, but in unfavourable external circumstances, and these are quite sufficient to account for its existence.

Among the causes which have contributed to retard the march of improvement in Africa, one of the most important is its compact geographical formation and the natural obstacles which render the access to its interior so extremely difficult. While Europe possesses a vast extent of coast line, numerous harbours, large peninsulas, deep gulfs and bays, and broad navigable rivers, Africa is deprived of these physical advantages. Though more than three times larger than Europe, its coasts are not only less extensive by one-fourth, but are also frequently bounded, particularly within the tropics, by sandy deserts or unhealthy swamps, which render them in a great measure inaccessible or useless to man. We there see no such peninsulas as Italy or Portugal and Spain, stretching far out into the ocean, and affording a seat to a numerous maritime population; no such great mediterranean seas as the Baltic, the Adriatic, or the Ægæan; and while in Europe many rivers carry the tides far into the interior of the land, and extend as it were the domains of ocean into the bosom of the continent, a great number of the streams of Africa are often rendered unnavigable by long-continued droughts, or even cease to flow altogether during a considerable part of the year. But the sea is not only the great highway of commerce, it also enlarges the sphere of man’s ideas, by bringing him into easier contact with other nations; it not only conveys the productions of every zone from coast to coast, but civilisation is also wafted upon its waves from shore to shore. Thus the vicinity of the sea has been as favourable to the development of a great part of Europe as the confinement or isolation of the Negro within the bounds of his native continent has tended to retard his improvement.

Even in the interior of Africa itself, communications are rendered difficult by many natural obstacles. The fertile regions of the Soudan are separated from the coast lands of the Mediterranean by the vast deserts of the Sahara, which have always opposed an insurmountable barrier to the spread of European civilisation. Here enormous tracts of arid land, there immense marshes and swampy lake districts, or high mountain ranges covered with impervious woods, impede the progress of the traveller, and separate one nation from the other.

Along with its unfavourable geographical formation, the political condition of Africa has likewise tended to maintain its ancient barbarism. As far as history reaches into the past, slavery has been its curse, nor has it ever enjoyed the advantages of a strong and permanent government. Thus, to cite but one example, the Manganja were all formerly united under the government of their great chief Undi, whose rule extended from Lake Shirwa to the river Loangwa, but after Undi’s death it fell to pieces. This has been the inevitable fate of every African empire from time immemorial. A chief of more than ordinary ability arises, and subduing all his less powerful neighbours, founds a kingdom which he governs more or less wisely, till he dies. His successor not having the talents of the conqueror cannot retain the dominion, and some of the abler or more ambitious under-chiefs set up for themselves, and in a few years the remembrance only of the empire remains. This, which may be considered as the normal state of African society, gives rise to frequent and desolating wars, and perpetuates a state of general insecurity which paralyses improvement and prevents the accumulation of wealth, that great lever of civilisation. Ignorance, superstition, intolerance are the natural consequences of the misgovernment under which Africa suffers, and contribute in their turn to maintain it. Even the most gifted nations must eventually sink under such a load of adverse circumstances, and when we recollect for how many centuries the genius of Europe languished after the fall of the Roman empire, we must not be too hasty in depreciating the natural abilities of the Negro.

A black, soft, and unctuous skin, woolly hair, thick lips, a flat nose, a retiring forehead, and a projecting maxilla, are his well-known physical characters; but both his colour and his features are considerably modified both by the climate of the land which he inhabits and the degree of civilisation he has attained. Considerable elevations of surface, as they produce a cooler temperature of the air, are also productive of a lighter-coloured skin. Thus, in the high parts of Senegambia, which fronting the Atlantic Ocean are cooled by westerly winds, we find the light copper-coloured Felatas surrounded on every side by the darker-coloured Negro tribes inhabiting the surrounding lower countries. In the interior of Africa, the Bornui, the occupants of the low basin of Lake Tsad, are also the most like the typical Negroes of the coast. Their moral and social condition, or the degree of barbarism and civilisation in which they live, has likewise a considerable influence on the physical conformation of the Negroes. The tribes in which the distinctive marks of the race are developed in the highest degree invariably occupy the lowest grade in the scale of African humanity: they are either ferocious, barbarous, or sunk in stupidity and sloth--as, for instance, the Papels, Balloms, and other savage hordes on the coast of Guinea, where the slave trade was formerly carried on to a great extent, and exerted, as usual, its baneful influence. On the other hand, where we hear of a Negro state whose inhabitants have made some progress in the social arts, we constantly find their physical character considerably deviating from the strongly pronounced Negro type. The Ashantees and the Sulimas may be cited as examples. The Negroes of Guber and Haussa, where a considerable degree of civilisation was a long time dominant, are perhaps the finest race of true Negroes in all Africa. The Joloff, who, since the time of their first discovery by the Portuguese, have enjoyed a certain degree of culture, are also tall, well-made Negroes, with the nasal profile less depressed, and the lips less prominent than is the case with the more typical tribes.

The religion of Mahomet has spread over many North African countries, but Fetissism, or the adoration of natural objects, animate or inanimate, to which certain mysterious powers are attributed, is still the superstitious creed of the greater part of that continent. Anything which chances to catch hold of the fancy of a Negro may be a fetish. One selects the tooth of a dog, of a tiger, or of a cat, or the bone of a bird; while another fixes on the head of a goat, or monkey, or parrot, or even upon a piece of red or yellow wood, or a thorn branch. The fetish thus chosen becomes to its owner a kind of divinity, which he worships, and from which he expects assistance on all occasions. In honour of his fetish, it is common for a Negro to deprive himself of some pleasure, by abstaining from a particular kind of meat or drink. Thus one man eats no goat’s flesh, another tastes no beef, and a third no brandy or palm wine. By a continual attention to his fetish, the Negro so far imposes upon himself as to represent it to his imagination as an intelligent being or ruling power, inspecting his actions and ready to reward or punish. Hence, like the Russian with his image of St. Nicholas, or the ancient Roman with his household gods, he covers it up carefully whenever he performs any action that he accounts improper. The importance or value of a fetish is always estimated according to the success of its owner whose good fortune induces others to adopt it. On the contrary, when a Negro suffers any great misfortunes, he infallibly attributes it to the weakness of his fetish, which he relinquishes, and adopts another that he hopes will prove more powerful. Sometimes a whole tribe or a large district has its fetish, which is regarded as a kind of palladium upon which the safety of their country depends. Thus, at Whidah, on the coast of Ashantee, they worship as their national fetish a kind of serpent of monstrous size, which they call the grandfather of the snakes. They say that it formerly deserted some other country on account of its wickedness, and came to them, bringing good fortune and prosperity along with it. The national fetish of the Kanga is an elephant’s tooth, and that of the tribe of Wawa a tiger. At Bonny divine honours are paid to huge water-lizards. Undisturbed, the lazy monsters crawl heavily through the streets, and as they pass the Negroes reverentially make way. A white man is hardly allowed to look at them, and hurried as fast as possible out of their presence. An attempt was once made to kidnap one of these dull lizard gods for the benefit of a profane museum, but the consequences were such as to prevent a repetition of the offence, for the palm oil trade was immediately stopped, and affairs assumed so hostile an aspect that the foreigners were but too glad to purchase peace with a considerable sacrifice of money and goods. When one of the lizards crawls into a house, it is considered a great piece of good fortune, and when it chooses to take a bath, the Bonnians hurry after it in their canoes. After having allowed it to swim and plunge several times, they seize it for fear of danger, and carry it back again to the land, well pleased at once more having the sacred reptile in their safe possession.

From this account of the fetishes of the Negroes, it is evident that the rudeness of their idolatry is on a level with the low state of their social condition. A victim to evil passions and to a vague and nameless awe engendered by the fantastical and monstrous character of the animal and vegetable productions around him, the Fetissist peoples with malevolent beings the invisible world, and animates material nature with evil influences. The rites of his dark and deadly superstition are all intended to avert evils from himself by transfering them to others; hence the witchcraft and magic which flow naturally from the system of demonology.

Like the Schaman of the Polar World, the Negro priest, or professional holy man, is supposed to have the power of controlling evil spirits, and founds his influence on the gross superstition and baseless fears of those who trust in his agency. His office includes many duties. He is a physician or medicine man, a detecter of sorcery by means of the ordeal, a vase maker, a conjuror or augur, and a prophet.

As all diseases are attributed by the Fetissist to ‘possession,’ the medicine man is expected to heal the patient by casting out the devil who has entered his body and disturbs its functions. The unwelcome visitant must be charmed away by the sound of drums and dancing, and when the auspicious moment for his expulsion arrives, is enticed from the body of the possessed into some inanimate article, which he will condescend to inhabit. This may be a certain kind of bead, two or more bits of wood bound together by a strip of snake’s skin, a lion’s or a leopard’s claw, and other similar articles, worn round the head, the arm, the wrist, or the ankle. Hence also the habit of driving nails into and hanging rags upon trees, which are considered apt places for the laying of evil spirits.

The second and perhaps the most profitable occupation of the medicine man is, the detection of sorcery. The unfortunate wretches, accused of practising the black art, are generally required to prove their innocence by submitting to various ordeals, similar to the fire tests of mediæval Europe. The commonest trial consists in the administration of some poisonous liquid, such as the red water of the Ashantees, which is extremely apt to find the accused person guilty. If he escape unhurt, however, and without vomiting, he is judged innocent. Much dancing and singing takes place on account of his escape, and he is allowed to demand that some punishment be inflicted on his accusers, on account of the defamation. Among the Eastern Africans visited by Captain Burton, a heated iron spike driven into some tender part of the person accused is twice struck with a log of wood. The Wazaramo dip the hand into boiling water, the Waganda into seething oil, and the Wazegura prick the ear with the stiff bristles of a gnu’s tail.

The crime of sorcery is usually punished by the stake; and in some parts of Eastern Africa, the roadside shows at every few miles, a heap or two of ashes with a few calcined and blackened human bones, telling the shocking tragedy that has been enacted there. The prospect cannot be contemplated without horror: here and there, close to the larger circle where the father and mother have been burnt, a smaller heap shows that some wretched child has shared its parents’ terrible fate, lest growing up he should follow in their path.

In countries where a season of drought causes dearth, disease, and desolation, the rain maker or rain doctor, is necessarily a person of great consequence, and he does not fail to turn the hopes and fears of the people to his own advantage. The enemy has medicines for dispersing the clouds which the doctor is expected to attract by his more potent charms. His spells are those of fetissists in general, the mystic use of something foul, poisonous, or difficult to procure. As he is a weatherwise man, and rains in tropical lands are easily foreseen, his trickery sometimes proves successful. Not unfrequently, however, he proves himself a false prophet, and when all the resources of cunning fail he must fly for his life, from the exasperated victims of his delusion.

The holy man is also a predictor and a soothsayer. He foretells the success or failure of commercial or warlike expeditions, prevents their being undertaken, or fixes the proper time for their commencement. In one word, his influence extends over almost all the occurrences of life, and is all the greater for being based on the abject superstition of his votaries.

Prayers and sacrifices are the chief religious observances of the Pagan negroes. Like most people all over the world, they pray for health, good weather, rich harvests, or victory over their enemies. After a long continuance of dearth, the Wawas assemble in a mourning procession before the house in which a panther is adored as a god. Howling and lamenting they represent to him their distress, and beg him to send them rain, as otherwise they must all die of hunger. The Watjas pray to the new moon to give them strength for labouring, and the Aminas go even so far as to implore their god to pay their debts.

The sacrifices or gift offerings of the Negroes generally consist of various kinds of household animals, or fruits of the earth; but in the kingdoms of Ashantee and Dahomey, human sacrifices are prevalent to a frightful extent. As the kings and black nobility ascend, after death, to the upper gods, with whom they are to enjoy eternally the state and luxury which was their portion on earth, a certain number of slaves, proportionate to their dignity, is sacrificed for the purpose of serving them in their new condition. Bowdich[41] relates that the king of Ashantee, on the death of his mother, butchered no less than 3,000 victims, and on his own death this number would probably be doubled. The funeral rites of a great captain were repeated weekly for three months, and 200 persons were slaughtered each time, or 2,400 in all. These wholesale executions, the details of which are too horrible to relate, still subsist to the present day, for the negroes cling with remarkable tenacity to their ancient customs, and this is perhaps the principal obstacle to their civilization or improvement.

The belief, so common among barbarous nations, that after death the spirit of the deceased still feels the same wants as during life, and the same pleasure in their gratification, leads to similar atrocious murders in other African countries, though probably nowhere on so gigantic a scale as in Ashantee. Thus the chiefs of Unyamwesi are generally interred with cruel rites. A deep pit is sunk, with a kind of vault projecting from it; in this the corpse, clothed with skin and hide, is placed sitting, with a pot of malt liquor, whilst sometimes one, but more generally three, female slaves, one on each side and the third in front, are buried alive to preserve their lord from the horrors of solitude. The great headmen of the Wadoe are interred almost naked, but retaining their head ornaments, sitting in a shallow pit so that the forefinger can project above the ground. With each man is buried alive a male and a female slave, the former holding a bill-hook wherewith to cut fuel for his master in the cold death-world, and the latter, who is seated upon a little stool, supports his head in her lap.

Among the negroes of Bonny, on the coast of Guinea, the wants of the dead are provided for in a less inhuman manner. The wealthy oil-merchant is interred under the threshold of his door, and a small round opening left in the ground leads to the head of the corpse. On feast days large quantities of rum are poured into this opening to gratify the thirst of the deceased and give him his share of the good things of this earth, for it is supposed that in the land of spirits he still retains the same predilection for spirituous enjoyments which he frequently testified during life. The medicine men invariably attend at these interesting ceremonies, and largely participate in the libations offered to the dead.

Throughout all Negro land we find, more or less, the custom so prevalent among other barbarous nations, of painting or tattooing the body, of distending the ears, of dressing the hair in a ridiculous manner, or of wearing an extravagant quantity of worthless trinkets; but the Manganja, a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the Shire, have adopted the same wonderful ornament, if such it may be called, which so hideously distorts the Botocude physiognomy.

The middle of the upper lip of the girls is pierced close to the septum of the nose, and a small pin inserted to prevent the puncture closing up. After it has healed, the pin is taken out and a larger one is pressed into its place, and so on successively for weeks and months and years. The process of increasing the size of the lip goes on till its capacity becomes so great that a ring of two inches in diameter can be introduced with ease. The poorer classes make the pelélé--as this absurd instrument of disfigurement is called--of hollow or of solid bamboo, but the wealthier of ivory or tin. The tin pelélé is often made in the form of a small dish; the ivory one is not unlike a napkin ring. No woman ever appears in public without the pelélé, except in times of mourning for the dead. The Manganjas no doubt see beauty in the upper lip projecting two inches beyond the tip of the nose, but to the rest of the world it is frightfully ugly. When an old wearer of a hollow bamboo-ring smiles, by the action of the muscles of the cheek, the ring and lip outside it are dragged back and thrown above the eyebrows. The nose is seen through the middle of the ring, and the exposed teeth show how carefully they have been chipped to look like those of a cat or crocodile. When told it makes them ugly, they had better throw it away, the Manganja ladies return the same answer as their European sisters, when fault is found with a monstrous chignon or an extravagant crinoline: ‘Really, it is the fashion.’

On the coast of Guinea, in the low delta of the Niger, we find the Negro inhabiting a country very different from the arid wastes in which the Bushman roams, more like a wild animal than a human creature. Here, instead of vast plains thirsting for water, numerous canals and creeks intersect the swampy soil and render the canoe as necessary to the existence of the people as the camel is to that of the Bedouins of the desert. The canoe furnishes the Bonnian with provisions from the interior of the country, it also serves to transport the palm oil which he exchanges for the commodities of Europe. This traffic, which has supplanted the old slave trade, has now lasted many years, but as yet the humanizing influence of commerce has made itself but little felt among the Bonnians whose intercourse with the white customers has only served to engraft some of the worst vices of civilized man on the brutality of the savage. Trade has indeed awakened in them the spirit of speculation, it has sharpened their intellect and rendered their manners less barbarous than those of their neighbours; but it has also taught them all the arts of deception and rendered them accomplished cheats, thieves, and liars. Of a passionate character, a trifle will provoke the most violent explosions of rage, which often lead to the use of the knife or the gun. King Peppel, one of the last sovereigns of this miserable little realm, would, without ceremony, send a bullet, the fatal messenger of his wrath, among the native crew of a canoe that was in his way or somewhat tardy in paying him the respect due to royalty.

The priest, conjurer, or medicine man still preserves an unshaken authority over the superstitious minds of the Bonnians, and appears most despicable in the character of a judge, for his verdict always inclines to the side of the party which offers him the largest bribe, and a cruel punishment awaits the wretch who has nothing but his innocence to plead in his favour. The accused is either obliged to undergo the ordeal of swimming across a creek, where he becomes the sure prey of the alligator or the shark; or he is led to execution on a sandpit at its mouth, where he is bound at ebb tide to two poles fastened in the sand. One limb after another, proceeding from the hands and feet to the shoulders and hip joints, is now separated from the bleeding trunk which is finally hewn down from the stake. While this horrid scene is performing, the impatient alligators already protrude their monstrous jaws out of the water, and the sharks are also in attendance waiting till the returning flood brings them their share of the feast. At the next ebb the sea has washed away every trace of the disgusting spectacle.

Sometimes a cruel sacrifice is offered to the sea. As the Bonnians chiefly subsist by their trade with the Europeans, which enables them to procure provisions from the interior, the arrival of the foreign ships is to them of the greatest importance. But large vessels are in the dry season often prevented for weeks together from passing the bar by low water, fogs, calms, or contrary winds. A sufficient depth of water across the bar is therefore the great desideratum of the traders or ‘gentlemen,’ as they call themselves, of Bonny. To obtain this they sail with several large canoes down the river close to the bar, where they throw several of their best male and female slaves into the water as a propitiatory offering to the sea, so as to induce it to rise, or, as they call it, to make ‘big water.’

The aspect of the capital town of Bonny, or Okolloma, which may contain about 5,000 souls, corresponds with the barbarous state of its inhabitants. On account of its low situation, scarcely elevated above high-water mark, the streets are constantly muddy, so that a stranger visiting the place is obliged to be carried over the worst places on the unctuous back of a negro, the only vehicle in Okolloma. The streets or rather lanes form a complete labyrinth, as every man erects his hut where he thinks proper, without any regard to regularity. The clay floor of these dwellings, which, though varying in size, are all built on the same plan, is raised about a foot above the level of the streets, and is undermined in all directions by a multitude of burrowing crabs. The walls are generally only six or seven feet high, but the roof, thatched with palm leaves, rises without any partition twenty feet or more above the floor. Generally the hut is without any window, so that in the obscurity which reigns within, it is difficult for the stranger to find his way to the smaller rooms or compartments into which the interior is subdivided. Some gourds and water-jugs, a few cases filled with clothes, arms, and other valuables, and low wooden stools for the master and his chief attendants, form the only furniture. The dwellings of the ‘gentlemen’ have no more pretension to architectural beauty than those of the humblest ‘freeman,’ consisting merely of several of the huts above described clustered together in the strangest confusion and communicating with each other through door openings in the interior.

If idleness were bliss the tribes inhabiting the fertile Lake Regions of Central Africa must be reckoned among the happiest of mankind. Rising with the dawn from his couch of cow’s hide, the negro usually kindles a fire to keep out the chill of the morning from his hay-stack hut, and addresses himself to his constant companion the pipe. When the sun becomes sufficiently powerful he removes the reed screen which forms the entrance to his dwelling, and issues forth to bask in the morning beams. After breaking his fast with a dish of porridge or curded milk, he now repairs to the Iwanza, or village ‘public,’ where in the society of his own sex he will spend the greater part of the day talking and laughing, smoking or indulging in copious draughts of a beer without hops, called pombe, the use of which among the negro and negroid races dates back as far as the age of Osiris. To while away the time he sits down to play at heads and tails; gambling being as violent a passion in him as with the Malay or the Americian Indian. Many of the Wanyamwesi have been compelled by this indulgence to sell themselves into slavery, and, after playing away their property, they even stake their aged mothers against the equivalent of an old lady in these lands--a cow or a pair of goats. Others, instead of gambling, indulge in some less dangerous employment, which occupying the hands, leaves the rest of the body and the mind at ease; such as whittling wood, piercing and airing their pipe-sticks, plucking out their beards, eyebrows, and eye-lashes, or preparing and polishing their weapons. At noon the African returns to his hut to eat the most substantial and the last meal of the day, which has been cooked by his women. Eminently gregarious, however, he often prefers the Iwanza as a dining-room, where the company of relatives and friends adds the pleasure of society to the enjoyment of beef or mutton. With him food is the all-in-all of life--his thought by day, his dream by night. The civilised European can hardly comprehend the intense delight with which his wild brother satisfies the wants of his stomach, or the envious eye which he casts on all those who live better than himself. After eating, the East African invariably indulges in a long fit of torpidity, using the back, breast, or stomach, of his neighbour as a pillow, and awakening from his siesta, passes the afternoon as he did the forenoon, chatting, playing, smoking, and where tobacco fails, chewing sweet earth, or the clay of ant-hills. This probably contains some animal matter, but the chief reason for using it is apparently the necessity to barbarians of whiling away the time when not sleeping, by exercising their jaws. Towards sunset all issue forth to enjoy the coolness; the men sit outside the Iwanza, whilst the women and the girls, after fetching water for the household wants from the well, collect in a group upon their little stools, and indulge in the pleasures of gossip and the pipe. This delightful hour in the more favoured parts of the country is replete with enjoyment, felt by the barbarian as much as by civilised man. As the hours of darkness draw nigh, the village doors are carefully closed, and after milking his cows, each peasant retires to his hut, or passes his time squatting round the fire with his friends in the Iwanza. He has not yet learned the art of making a wick, and of filling a bit of pottery with oil. An ignited stick of some oleaginous wood, which will keep burning for a quarter of an hour with a brilliant flame, serves to light him home. Such is the African’s idle day, and thus every summer is spent; but as the wintry rains draw nigh, and provisions become scarce, the necessity of providing for his daily bread suggests itself, and labour in the fields occupies a great part of the day, which would otherwise have been spent in the Iwanza.

When the moon shines bright, the spirits of the East African rise to their highest pitch, and a furious drumming, a loud clapping of hands, and a drowsy chorus summon the lads and lasses of the neighbouring villages to come out and dance.

The style of saltation usual in these parts is remarkable only for the excessive gravity which it induces, for at no other time does the East African look so serious, so full of earnest purpose, as when about to practise the art of Terpsichore. At first the dancers tramping to the measure with alternate feet, and simultaneously performing a kind of treadmill exercise, with a heavier stamp at the end of every period, sway their bodies slowly from side to side; but as excitement increases,

‘The mirth and fun grows fast and furious,’

till the assembly, with arms waving like windmills, assumes the semblance of a set of maniacs. The performance often closes with a grand promenade, all the dancers being jammed in a rushing mass, with the features of satyrs and fiendish gestures. The performance having reached this highest pitch, the song dies, and the dancers with loud shouts of laughter, throw themselves on the ground to recover strength and breath.

What a contrast to this life of easy indolence when the Negro villager, violently torn from home, is led away into hopeless slavery! This, however, is but too often his lot, for throughout the whole length and breadth of torrid Africa, from the coast of Guinea to the borders of the Nile, we almost universally find man armed against man and the stronger tribes ever ready to kidnap and capture the weaker wretches within their reach. Every year sees new gangs of slaves driven to the great mart of Zanzibar, or on their melancholy way across the desert to Chartum; every year witnesses the renewal of atrocities, which, to the disgrace of man, date back as far as the time of the Phœnicians, and may possibly outlast the nineteenth century.[42]

An Egyptian Razzai, or slave-hunting expedition, after long toilsome marches across the desert or through the primeval forest, at length succeeds in surprising a Negro village. The soldiers, in whom their own sufferings have long since extinguished every spark of humanity, rush with tiger-like ferocity upon their prey; their fury spares neither age nor infancy; all who are deemed unfit for a life of bondage are mercilessly butchered. The Scheba, a heavy wooden collar, shaped like a fork, rests upon the neck of the adult captives, and prevents their escape or their desperate attempts at suicide. Being neither planed nor covered with soft rags, it wears deep wounds into the skin, and causes painful ulcers which last as long as the journey, for the Scheba is not removed before the place of destination is reached. More goaded and more brutally treated than a herd of cattle, the miserable pilgrims now set forth on their eternal separation from all that rendered life of any value in their eyes. Before the burning village fades for ever from their sight, the commander orders the caravan to halt. Little cares he, if, under those smoking ruins some wounded wretch unable to move, sees the flames advance nearer and nearer to consume him; if some infant left in a conflagrated hut utters its piercing cries for help.

This is the fate of more than one village until a sufficient number of slaves has been collected, or the expedition is unable any longer to withstand the climate, or the attacks of an exasperated foe. Burning, plundering, and destroying, the soldiers return to Chartum. The caravan moves slowly. The men wounded in battle or with necks chafed by the Scheba, the poor women half-dead from thirst and hunger, the weak children cannot possibly walk fast. Brehm witnessed the arrival of a transport of Dinkh negroes at Chartum and was for weeks after haunted by the dreadful sight, the horrors of which no pen could describe, no words express. It was on January 12, 1848. Before the government house, about sixty men and women sat in a circle on the ground. All the men were shackled, the women free. Children were creeping on all fours between them. The wretches lay exposed without the least protection to the rays of the burning sun, too exhausted, too dispirited to murmur or to complain, their dull glassy eyes immovably fixed on one spot, and yet full of an indescribably mournful expression. Blood and matter issued from the wounds of the men, but no word of pity, no helping hand was there to alleviate their sufferings. Involuntarily the eye of the spectator sought out the most miserable objects of the miserable group, and found them in a mother worn down to a skeleton by despair, hunger, and fatigue, and vainly pressing her famished infant to her dried-up breast. It seemed to him as if he saw the Angel of Death hovering over the wretched pair, as if he heard the rustling of his wings, and from the bottom of his heart he prayed that God might soon send the deliverer to release them from their sufferings.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Captain Stokes’s ‘Discoveries in Australia.’

[2] ‘Narrative of Missionary Enterprise in the South Sea Islands,’ p. 390.

[3] Though frequently confounded, even by the Peruvian Creoles, the western chain, running parallel with the coast of the Pacific, is properly the Cordillera, while the eastern chain, which generally runs in the same direction as the former, has always been named the Andes by the Indian natives.

[4] It is only in the Old World that the reindeer has ever been domesticated.

[5] For a more detailed account of the Peruvian Guano Islands, see ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders.’ Second Edition, pp. 144, 147.

[6] ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders.’ Second Edition, p. 41.

[7] Ibid, p. 40.

[8] ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders,’ p. 195.

[9] ‘The Subterranean World.’ Second Edition, p. 306.

[10] Whoever has read Rückert’s wonderful translation of ‘The Makamas of Hariri’ will be able to form some opinion of the richness of the Arabic and at the same time admire the exuberant treasures of the German tongue.

[11] D’Escayrac, ‘Le Désert et le Soudan.’

[12] Forbes’s ‘Oriental Memoirs.’

[13] Tennent’s ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. pp. 614, 618.

[14] ‘Wanderings,’ p. 5.

[15] ‘Himalayan Journals,’ vol. i. p. 146.

[16] See Chapter III.

[17] Tennent’s ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. p. 523.

[18] The northern part of the new continent had been visited and colonized centuries before by the mariners of Iceland. For an account of this discovery, see ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders,’ second edition, p. 362.

[19] Tennant’s ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. p. 234.

[20] ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders,’ ch. xx.

[21] ‘Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes,’ London 1848, vol. i. p. 214.

[22] Kirby and Spence’s ‘Introduction to Entomology;’ Swainson’s ‘Habits and Instincts of Animals.’

[23] Junghuhn, ‘Die Battaländer.’ Berlin, 1847.

[24] ‘Jamaica Almanac,’ 1843.

[25] Spix and Martius, ‘Reisen in Brasilien.’

[26] Sir E. Tennent’s ‘Ceylon,’ vol. i. p. 193.

[27] At the time of Mr. Darwin’s visit an attempt, since given up, had been made to colonise the islands, which are once more only tenanted by casual adventurers, and may be well called _uninhabited_.

[28] For more ample details on the Marine Chelonians, see chap. ix. of ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders.’

[29] Forbes’ ‘Oriental Memories,’ vol. i. p. 357.

[30] ‘Discoveries in Australia.’

[31] ‘Reiseskizzen aus Nord-Öst-Afrika.’

[32] Baker’s ‘Eight Years’ Wanderings in Ceylon,’ vol i. p. 167.

[33] ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders,’ p. 139.

[34] A. Adams. ‘Notes of the Natural History of the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. Samarang.’

[35] ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders,’ p. 119.

[36] Words of the ‘Koran.’

[37] Sir James Emerson Tennent: ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. p. 288. Fourth Edition.

[38] Tennent’s ‘Ceylon,’ vol. ii. pp. 336–340.

[39] ‘The Sea and its Living Wonders,’ p. 154.

[40] Quarterly Review, 1855, p. 22.

[41] Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, 1819.

[42] Sir Bartle Frere’s mission gives us reason to hope that better days are in store for the unfortunate East Africans.

INDEX.

Aard-varks, or earth hogs (Orycteropi), 488

Abies Brunoniana of the slopes of Sikkim, 83

---- Webbiana of the slopes of Sikkim, 83

Abrus precatoria, spider called the, 213

Abyssinia, the tsalt-salya or zimb of, 230

Acacia latronùm, thorns of the, 144

Aden, coffee first introduced into, 170

Adjutant bird, 303

---- his destruction of reptiles, 303

Africa, timber of the eastern coast-lands of, 6

---- influence of the heated plains of, in deflecting the trade-winds, 8

---- gigantic trees of, 120 _et seq._

---- reason why droughts are prevalent in, 85

---- bushmen of, 85

---- animals of, 88

African mode of life, 531

Agades, tower in, 93

Agave Americana, 81, 132

---- its uses, 133

Air-currents, their effects in the equatorial regions, 4

---- the trade-winds, 4, 5

---- polar and equatorial air-currents, 1

Aïs, the, 497

Albatross, the, compared with the condor, 378

---- avoids the torrid zone, 267

Alexander the Great, said to have introduced the peacock into Europe, 360

Algeria, domestication of the ostrich in, 388

Alligators, torpor of, of the Amazons river, 46

---- the caymen, of the New World, 333

---- mode of seizing their prey, 334

---- their voice, 334

---- their conflicts among themselves, 335

---- their preference for human flesh, 334

Alligators, their tenacity of life, 335

---- their tenderness for their young, 336

---- their friends and enemies, 339

Allspice, 204. _See_ Pimento

Aloes, the, of the torrid zone, 132

Alpaca, value of its wool, 23

---- herds of, in the high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 25

Altos of the Puna, 28

Aluate, or howling monkey, 512

Amazonian parrot (Psittacus Amazonicus), 396

Amazons, or Marañon, river

---- ---- ---- source of, 36

---- ---- ---- its length, width, and course, 36

---- ---- ---- its tributaries, 37

---- ---- ---- rapids and cataracts of the, 36

---- ---- called the Solimoens from the Brazilian frontier to the influx of the Rio Negro, 37

---- ---- ---- its unfathomable depth at the Strait of Obydos, 37

---- ---- ---- its tide-waves, 38

---- ---- ---- its width below Gurupa, 38

---- ---- ---- and when it reaches the ocean, 38

---- ---- ---- imperfect knowledge of the river, 39

---- ---- ---- extent of territory drained by the Amazons, 40

---- ---- ---- its colossal rise, 40

---- ---- ---- lagunes of the, and their beautiful scenery, 41

---- ---- ---- different character of the forests beyond and within the verge of the inundation of the river, 42

---- ---- ---- a sail on the river, and a night’s encampment, 43

---- ---- ---- the yacu-mama, or ‘mother of the waters,’ 44

Amazons, the voracious pirangas, 45

---- ---- ---- mosquitoes of the, 45

---- ---- ---- beds of aquatic grass on the, 45

---- ---- ---- birds on the, 46

---- ---- ---- insects of the, 46

---- ---- ---- storms on the river, 47

---- ---- ---- rapids and whirlpool, 47

---- ---- ---- the Amazons regarded as the stream of the future, 49

---- ---- ---- discovery of the Amazons by Vincent Yañez Pinson, 50

---- ---- ---- adventures of Pizarro and Madame Godin on the, 50–52

---- ---- ---- primitive forests of the banks of the Amazons, 53

---- ---- ---- the mosquito plagues of, 222

---- ---- ---- orange-red colouring matter used by the Indians of the, 195

America, growth of cotton in, 189, 190

---- insect plagues of, 221

---- snakes of the United States of, 316

---- South, influence of the Marañon on the climate of the, 5

---- Central, deflections from the ordinary course of the trade-winds in, 8

---- savannahs of, 12

---- a savannah on fire, 14

---- cultivation of maize in, 165

---- primitive forests of, 54

Amsterdam, a spice-fire in, 200

Anaconda, or water-boa (Eunectes murinus), 301

Anarajapoora, sacred Bo tree of, 127

Anderson, Mr., his adventure with a rhinoceros, 428

---- and with a lion, 449

Angola, red ant of, 235

Anolis, the, 310, 312

---- battles of the, 312

---- faculty of changing colour, 313

Anomaluri, the, of the west coast of Africa, 495

Ant-eaters, 482

---- the great ant-bear, 482

---- his mode of licking up termites, 483

---- his characteristics, 483

---- Indian mode of killing him, 484

---- the manides, or pangolins, 485

---- the Aard-varks, or orycteropi, 486

---- the porcupine ant-eater, 488

Antelopes of South Africa, 408

---- cervicapra, 412

Antonio Julian, Don, regrets that the use of coca had not been introduced into Europe, 187

Ants, their ravages in sugar plantations, 177

Ants, vast numbers of, in tropical countries, 234

---- excruciating pain caused by the bite of the Ponera clavata, 235

---- the red ant of Angola, 235

---- the sugar ants, 236

---- house ants, 237

---- driver or foraging ants, 238

---- societies of ants, 239

---- fungus ants, 239

---- Formica bispinosa, 239

---- ant-hills, 240

---- sagacity of ants, 240

---- slave-making expeditions of some kinds of ants, 240

---- the honey ant of Mexico, 240

---- termites, or white ants, 241. _See_ Termites

---- black ants, 246

---- wars between black and white ants, 246

Apes, anthropomorphous, compared and contrasted with man, 498

Arabia, coffee first introduced into, 178

---- mode of cultivating coffee in, 179

Arabic tongue, delicacy of the, 118

Arandi (Bombyx Cynthia), soft threads spun by the, 249

Araneæ of the tropics, 211

Aras of America (Macrocerus Macao), the, 398

Arauca, Rio, mosquitoes of, 233

Archipelago, the Eastern, bamboos of 130

---- ---- screw pine of the, 133

---- the Mulgrave, importance of the screw pine to the inhabitants of, 133

Areca palm (Areca Catechu), the, 151, 162

---- Singhalese habit of chewing the nuts with lime and betel-pepper leaves, 151

Areca sapida of New Zealand, 160

Armadillos, the, 487

---- of the sand-coast of Peru, 34

---- genera of the Armadillos, 487

Arnatto (Bixa orellana), used as a dye, 195

Arnee (Bubalus arnee), 413

---- uses of, 196

Arrack made from the cocoa-nut tree, 148

Arrowroot, from what obtained, 170

---- mode of obtaining it, 170, 171

Artocarpus incisa, or bread-fruit tree, 166

Ascension, turtles of the island of, 328

Ashantee, human sacrifices at, 526

Asp of ancient authors, 300

Atlantic, limits of the trade-winds in the Northern, 4, 5

Atlas mountains, ephemeral streams of the, 70

---- ---- the lions of the, 477

Atlas-moth, cinnamon-eating, of Ceylon, 207

Atro, or Ben Israel of Abyssinia (Cephalopus hemprichii), 410

Aturas, extinct tribe of the, 72

---- their graves, 72

Australians, physical conformation of the, 466

---- their low state of civilisation, 467

---- their languages, 467

---- their superstitions, 467, 468

---- their dances, 469

---- their family names and family kobongs, or badges, 470

---- their ceremony of marriage, 470

---- their blood feuds, 470

---- their savage customs, 470

---- their food, 470

---- their division of property, 471

---- their punishments, 471

---- laws for the preservation and distribution of food, 472

---- their respect for age, 472

---- their hunts, 473

---- their dexterity in fishing, 474

---- their hospitality and feasts, 475

---- not guilty of cannibalism, 476

---- their throwing-stick and boomerang, 476

---- their moral qualities, 476

Baboons, 510

Baboon, the great, of Senegal, 510

Bacha, the (Falco bacha), 382

Bactrian camel, 401

Bahama Islands, mode of catching turtles on the, 328

Bahia toad, 319

Bakalahari, the, of the Kalahari, 86–91

---- their love for agriculture and domestic animals, 91

---- their timidity, 92

---- fur of their animals, 92

Balagnini of the vicinity of Sooloo, 256

Balistinæ, 272

Baltimore bird (Icterus Baltimore), 352

---- ---- nest of the, 353

Bamboos (Bambusaceæ) of the tropics, 130

---- variety of uses to which they are applied, 130

Bambusaceæ, the, of the tropics, 130

---- rapidity of their growth, 130

Banana (Musa sapientum), its importance as food, 167, 168

Banana (Musa sapientum), and of the Saüba ant, 236

Banda, nutmeg trees of, 199, 200

Banyan tree (Ficus indica), 124, 125

---- ---- fondness of the Hindoos for it, 125

Baobab, African, or monkey-bread tree (Adansonia digitata), 120, 121

---- ---- immense specimens of, 121

---- ---- used as a vegetable cistern, 122

---- ---- its age, 122

Barbasco (Jacquinia armillaris), used for catching fish, 66

Barima river, the Upper, gigantic trees of, 130

Basilisk, the, 318

Bats of tropical forests, 490, 491

---- organisation of, 491

---- the kalongs, or fox-bats, of Java, 491

---- the vampire, 492

---- the Rhinolophi, or horse-shoe bats, 493

---- the Scotophilis Coromandelicus of Ceylon, 494

Battas, a Malay tribe, 259

‘Bay of the Thousand Isles,’ 38

Baya birds of Hindostan, their nests, 367

Bear, the cocoa-nut (Ursus malayanus), 149

Bechuanas, their love for agriculture and domestic animals, 91

---- their mode of drawing water, 91

Bedouins, personal appearance of the, 105

---- their love of solitude, 107

---- acuteness of their senses, 107

---- their manners, 108

---- their patriotism, 108

---- song of Maysunah, 109

---- traits of their character, 109

---- ferocity of their life, 110

---- their women, 110

---- their chivalrous spirit, 111

---- story of the Caliph El Mutasen, 111

---- horses of the Arabs, 111, 112

---- camels of the, 113

---- ---- the instrument of lasting freedom, 113

---- encampments of the Bedouins, 115

---- quarrels among them, 115

---- murders among them, 116

---- their amusements, 116, 117

---- their hospitality and accomplishments, 118

---- delicacy of the Arabic tongue, 118

---- manners and habits of the Bedouins, 119

---- their religious character, 119

---- their similarity to the North American Indians, 119

Beetles of the Amazons, 46

---- of the tropical forests, 46

---- edible, of the Oreodoxa oleracea, 159

---- peculiarity of beetle-life in the torrid zone, 206

---- the Hercules beetle (Megasomina Hercules), 206

---- Goliath, of the tropics, 206

---- the Goliaths of the coast of Guinea, 206

---- luminous beetles, 210

---- ---- cocujas of South America, 210

Begus, or evil spirits, of the Malays, 260

Behemoth of the Bible, 417

Bell-bird, or campanero, 350

Bengal, indigo of, 192, 193

Berbice river, the Victoria Regia discovered in the, 137

Bête rouge, the, of Guiana and the West Indies, 227

Bhain (Bubalus Bhain), 414

Biledulgerid, or oases south of the Atlas, toddy drunk in, 155

Birds of the Puna, or high table-lands of tropical America, 28, 34

---- of the tropical seas, 267, 268

---- of prey of the tropics, 376

Birds’-nests, edible, 269

Black ants, 246

Blast, a sugar-cane disease, 177

Blattæ, 233

Blatta gigantea, or the drummer, 233

Bo tree, or pippul, of India (Ficus religiosa), 126

---- ---- antiquity of one at Anarajapoora, in Ceylon, 126

---- ---- veneration of the Buddhists for it, 127

---- ---- union of the Bo tree with the Palmyra palm, 137

Boa constrictor, 301

---- ---- his habitat, 301

---- ---- the water, 301

---- ---- his habitat, 302

Boaquira (Crotalus horridus), 298

Bogota, perennial rainy seasons of, 6

Bombax Ceiba, 139

Bombay, heavy fall of rain at, 8

Bombyx cynthia, 249

---- mori, 249

---- mylitta, 249

Bonny, mode of providing for the wants of the dead at, 527

---- the town of, 529, 530

Boomerang of the Australian savage,476

Botocudo Indians, 62

Botocudos Indians, 77

Bottle tree of tropical Australia, 139

Botuto, or holy trumpet, of the South American Indians, 70

Bourbon, nutmegs of, 201

Bow Island. _See_ Hau

Brazil, impenetrable forests of, 55

---- sensitive plants of, 135

---- the bushropes or lianas of, 135

---- immense number of beetles found in, 210

---- the bush-master of, 297

---- the giant-toad of, 320

---- tree-frog of, 320

---- birds of, 347

---- humming-birds of, 347

---- wood (Cæsalpina crista), description of the tree producing, 195

Brazilian nut (Bertholletia), 145

Bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa) of Polynesia, 166

---- ---- ---- the harvest, 166

---- ---- ---- the sour paste, 167

Bromelids, American, 132

---- uses of the, 132

Buddhists, their veneration for the sacred Bo tree at Anarajapoora, 127

Buffalo, the African (Bubalus Caffer), his guardian bird, 442

---- ferocity of the, 413

Buffalo-thorn (Acacia latronùm), thorns of the, 144

Buffaloes, ferocity of the male solitaires of the, 413

Bulls, wild, of the Puna mountain valleys, 28

Buprestis gigas, elytra of the, worn as an ornament, 252

Bushmen, African, 88

---- their habitat, 88

---- their weapons, 89

---- their treatment of the Bakalahari, 92

Bush-master snake (Lachesis rhombeata), 297

Bushropes, or lianas, of tropical vegetation, 135

Cabbage-palm of the Antilles (Oreodoxa oleracea), its magnificence, 159

---- ---- grub of the, 159

Cabeza di Negro (Phytelephas), hard white nuts of the, 160

Cacao tree (Cacao theobroma), 182

---- ---- origin of the name of theobroma, 182

---- ---- indigenous in Mexico, 182

---- ---- Humboldt’s description of a cacao plantation, 182

---- ---- mode of cultivation, 183

---- ---- management of the beans, 183

---- ---- used in the form of chocolate, 183

Cactuses, description of the, 133

---- their usefulness to man, 133

Cactuses did not exist in the Old World previous to the discovery of America, 134

---- range of their growth, 134

---- of Peru and Bolivia, 134

---- of the Puna, 134

Cæsalpina crista, 195

Caffa and Enarea, the original home of the coffee plant, 178

Calabar, New and Old, palm-oil trade of, 146

Calao, or rhinoceros horn-bill (Buceros rhinoceros), 358

Calcutta, heavy fall of rain in, 18

Californian firs, size of the, 159

Calms, zone of, 6

---- intense heat of the, 6

---- heavy afternoon rains of the, 6

Camel, its resemblance to the ostrich, 387

---- the dromedary the ship of the desert, 399

---- adaptation of its organisation to its mode of life, 400

---- Bedouin mode of training it, 400

---- the Bactrian camel, 401

---- immemorial slavery of the camel, 401

---- its unamiable character, 402

Camelopard. _See_ Giraffe

Campanero, or bell-bird, 350

Canary Islands, gigantic dragon-trees of the, 123

Canis Ingæ of the Punas, 28

Caoutchouc tree (Siphonia elastica), Indians incising some of them, 188

---- ---- description of the tree, 190

---- ---- introduction of caoutchouc into Europe, 190

---- ---- mode of collecting the resin, 190

---- ---- other trees yielding caoutchouc, 191

---- ---- various uses of India-rubber, 191

Caouana, or loggerhead turtle (Chelonia caouana), 331

Capybara, or water-pig, eaten by the alligator, 333

Caribs, 76

Caracara eagle (Polyborus caracara), his station, 246

Cardinal bird of Mexico, 80

Carinaria vitrea, the, 274

Carnauba palm (Corypha cerifera), wax obtained from the, 158

---- ---- other uses of the tree, 158

Caroa (Bromelia variegata), fishing-nets made from the fibres of the, 132

Caroline Islanders, 289

Cassava, or Mandioca root (Jatropha Manihot), how prepared as food, 169

Cassava, the sweet cassava (Jatropha janipha), 170

Cassicus cristatus, 354

---- ruber, 354

---- persicus, 354

Cassiques, the, 354

---- their pendulous nests, 354

Cassowary, the galeated (Casuarius galeatus), 390, 391

Caterpillars, eaten by man in Africa, 251

---- their means of defence, 209

Cayman. _See_ Alligator

Cecropias, of the Amazons river, 45

Ceiba (Bombax ceiba), the, of the forests of Yucatan, 128

Cephalopods, gigantic, 274

Cerastes, or horned viper, of the Egyptian jugglers, 301

Cercopitheci, their characteristics, 505

---- parental affection of one, 507

Ceroxylon andicola, wax obtained from the, 159

---- height at which it will grow, 159, 160

Ceylon, abundance of the cocoa-nut tree in, 146, 147

---- its love of the sea, 146

---- the tree, and its fruit and flowers, 147

---- cocoa-nut oil trade of, 148

---- coir of the, 148

---- palmyra toddy of, 148

---- wood of the cocoa-nut tree, uses for it, 149

---- enemies of the, 149

---- cultivation of rice in, 164

---- the coffee cultivation of, 180

---- cinnamon gardens of, 198

---- ---- taken by the Dutch, who save the plants, 198

---- former profits of the Dutch, 198

---- dimensions of the atlas moth of, 207

---- Mr. Stewart’s plantation at Ceylon, 199

---- nutmegs of, 202

---- snakes of, 209

---- comparative rareness of venomous snakes in, 209

---- the rat-snake and cobra domesticated in, 308

---- barbarous mode of selling turtle-flesh in, 330

---- birds of, 374

---- elephants of, 440

---- elephant-catchers of, 440

Chacma, or pig-faced baboon (Cynocephalus porcarius), 510

Chalias, the, of Ceylon, and their supply of cinnamon, 198

Chamærops humilis, of Nizza, 160

Chameleon, the, 313

---- its habitat, 313

---- its manner of hunting for its food, 313

---- peculiarities of its organisation, 314

Chancay, sand-hills of, 35

Cheetah, or hunting leopard, 446

Chegoe, Pique, or Jigger, of the West Indies (Pulex penetrans), 225

---- its mode of working, 225

---- native method of extirpating it, 225

Chelonia imbricata, 329, 331

---- midas, 329

---- caouana, 331

Chelonians, 321

Chimpanzee, the (Simia troglodytes), 499

---- chim in Paris, 499

Chincha, or Guano Islands, 35

Chinchilla lanigera, the, of the high table-lands of Peru, 27

---- ---- its appearance and habits, 27

Chirimoya (Anona tripetala), a Peruvian fruit, 172

Choco of Chili, 160

Chocolate, 183

Chuñu, or chaps, caused by the biting winds of the Puna, 21

Cicadæ, or frog-hoppers, eaten by man, 252

Cilgero bird of Cuba, his song, 356

Cinnamon plant, 198

---- gardens of Ceylon, 198

---- immense profits of the Dutch, 198

---- decline of the trade, 198

---- mode of cultivating the plant and procuring the rind, 199

---- the Ceylon chalias, 198

Cleopatra, her death, 300

Climates, diversity of, within the tropics, 1

---- causes by which the diversity of, is produced, 2

---- varieties of the tropical, 3

---- climate of the Llanos of Venezuela and New Granada, 11

---- of the Puna or high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 20

Cloves, history of the cruel monopoly of the Dutch in, 200

---- clove-tree groves, 201

Coary river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Coatimondi, the, 499

Cobra di Capello, the, 298, 299

---- tamed by the Indian jugglers, 299

---- its habitat, 300

---- its sea voyages, 300

Coca (Erythroxylon coca), 184

Coca, its immense consumption in Peru and Bolivia, 184

---- mode of preparing it by the Indians, 185

---- its wonderfully strengthening effects, 186

---- use of, in ascending mountains, 186

---- fatal consequences of its abuse, 186

---- the coquero, or confirmed coca-chewer, 186

---- divine honours paid to the shrub by the Peruvians, 187

---- its use interdicted by the Spanish conquerors, but finally allowed and encouraged, 187

---- its remarkable properties long remained unnoticed, 187

Cocci, the cochineal coccus of Mexico, 249, 250

Coccus cacti, 250

---- hesperidum of Mexico, 249

---- lacca, or lac-insect, 249, 251

---- of the coffee tree, 182

Cochineal insect, exportation of, forbidden by the Spaniards in Mexico, 250

---- ---- introduced into the Canary Islands, Spain, and other places, 251

---- ---- cultivation of the, 250

---- ---- history of cochineal, 250

Cock of the Rock of Guiana (Rupicola aurantia), 351

Cockatoo, the, 396

---- the great white, 396

---- the black of Australia, 396

---- cockatoo-killing in Australia, 396

Cockroaches (Blattæ), tropical plague of, introduced into England, 233

---- the giant cockroach of the tropics (Blatta gigantea), 233

---- encounter between a spider and a cockroach, 218

Cocoa-nut tree (Cocos nucifera), the 146

---- ---- ---- its abundance in Ceylon, 146

---- ---- ---- its many uses to man, 147

---- ---- ---- cocoa-nut oil and the oil trade, 148

---- ---- ---- toddy made from the, 148

---- ---- ---- timber of the, 148, 149

---- ---- ---- cultivation of the, 149

---- ---- ---- enemies of the, 149

Cocos nucifera, the, 146. _See_ Cocoa-nut tree

---- butyracea, or oil palm-tree of West Africa, 158

Cocujas beetle of South America, its luminous qualities, 210

Coffee, original home of the plant, 178

Coffee, the use of, introduced into Arabia, 178

---- history of coffee-drinking, 179

---- the first coffee-houses in London and Paris, 179

---- present state of coffee production throughout the world, 179, 180

---- Brazil, Java, Ceylon, Hayti, and Venezuela, 180

---- Mocha coffee, its quality, 180

---- mode of cultivation of the coffee-tree, 180

---- coffee plantations, 180

---- felling trees for coffee plantations in Ceylon, 181

---- enemies of the coffee-tree, 180

Coir, or cocoa-nut fibre, uses to which it is applied, 148

Colobi, the African, 505

Colombo, cinnamon gardens of, 198

Condamine, M. La, his voyage from Brancamoros to Para, 52

---- introduces caoutchouc into Europe, 190

Condor, the, of the high table-lands of tropical America, 28, 377

---- his marvellous flight, 377

---- his food, 377

---- modes of capturing him, 377, 378

---- compared with the albatross, 378

Coniferæ of the slopes of the Sikkim mountains, 83

Copris hamadryas, size of the, 205, 206

Convolvulus batatas, or sweet potato, 170

Coot, the gigantic (Fulica gigantea), of tropical America, 28

Coppersmith bird of Ceylon (Megalasara Indica), 373

Coral islands, 266

---- formation of, 275

---- dreary monotony of a coral islander’s life, 289

Coral-snake (Elaps corallinus), domesticated in Brazil, 308

Coriaceous turtle (Sphargis coriacea), 330

Corozo palm (Elæis oleifera), oil of the, 159

Corribory of the Australians, 469

Cotingas, the, 350

Cotton, 189

---- cultivation of, 189

---- amazing rise of the cotton manufacture, 189

---- the cotton harvest, 190

---- the cotton trade of India, present and prospective, 190 _et seq._

Couguar, or puma, the, 462

---- shown by the Peruvian Indians, 463

Counacutchi, or bush-master snake (Lachesis rhombeata), 297

Crab, land, 272, 273

---- their burrows, 273

---- their mode of defence, 274

Crabs, fighting, 274

---- injuries done by, to the sugar-cane, 177

---- short-tailed, 272

---- of the tropical seas, 272

Crauata de rede (Bromelia sagenaria), cordage made from the, 132

Cray-fish, 272

Creeping plants, their importance in the deserts of South Africa, 64

Crocodiles of the banks of the Amazons, 45

---- their torpidity, 332, 340

---- food of the, 338

---- their friend, the Hyas Ægyptiacus, 339

---- fables as to the ichneumon, 339

---- their power of fascinating their prey, 340

---- their wanderings, 340

---- anecdote of one in Ceylon, 341

---- their habitat, 337

Crotalus horridus, 298

---- durissus, 298

Crustaceans of the tropics, 272

---- decapod, 272

Cucurito palm, splendour of the, 161

Cynocephali, 509

Cynocephalus porcarius, 510

---- sphinx, 510

Cypræa aurora, 274

Dahomey, human sacrifices at, 526

Damara Land, reason why droughts are prevalent in, 86

Dampier, the bread-fruit first mentioned by, 167

---- his account of logwood-cutting and logwood-cutters, 194, 195

---- his love for the free life of wood-cutters, 195

---- attacked by a Guinea worm, 250

Date-palm (Phœnix dactylifera), 154

---- ---- range of its cultivation, 155

---- ---- introduced into Spain and Italy, 155

---- ---- mode of propagation, 155

---- ---- sanctity of the tree, 155

---- ---- toddy of the, 155

---- ---- varieties of dates, 156

Decomposition arrested by sand and the winds of the Punas, 25

Delabechea, or bottle-tree, of tropical Australia, 138, 139

Delebl palms of Kordofan, 158

Demerara, the goatsucker of, 355

Demoiselle, or Numidian crane (Grus virgo), 362

---- the crowned, 362

Derryas, the (Cynocephalus hamadryas), formerly regarded with divine honours, 510

Desert, the ship of the. _See_ Camel

Dew, causes of, 5

Diactor bilineatus, 209

Diamond-beetle (Entimus nobilis), used as an ornament, 252

Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana), 506

Diodon, the, 272

Dioscoreæ, habitat of the, 170

Diseases to which the traveller is liable in the Punas, or high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 22

Dogs, half wild (Canis Ingæ), of the Punas, 28

---- eaten by the Polynesians, 281

Dolphins, 271

Doum-palm (Hyphæne thebaica), 157

---- used for the preparation of sherbet, 157

Douw, or Burchell’s zebra, 415

Dracænas, or dragon-trees, 123

---- gigantic ones of the Canary Islands, Madeira, and Porto Santo, 123

---- celebrated specimen at Orotava, in Teneriffe, 123

Dragons, flying, 317

Dragon-trees. _See_ Dracænas

Dromedary. _See_ Camel

Drummer cockroach (Blatta gigantea), 233

Du Chaillu, M., his description of the gorilla, 501

Duck (Chenalobex jubata) of the Amazons, 46

Duiker (Cephalopus mergens), the, of South Africa, 88, 410

Durian of the Indian Archipelago, 145

Durissus (Crotalus durissus), 298

Dutch, their progress in the Indian Ocean and cruel monopolies, 200

---- their cultivation of nutmegs and cloves, 199–202

Dyaks of Borneo, 263

Dyes, tropical vegetable, 192

---- indigo, 192, 193

---- logwood, 193

---- Brazil wood, 195

---- arnatto, 195

Eagle, the harpy, 380

---- his habitat, 380

---- his ferocity, 381

Eagle, the fishing, of Africa (Haliætus vocifer), 382

Earth-hogs of the Cape, 488

Echidna, the, or porcupine ant-eater, 488

Echinocacti, the, 133

Echinocactus nana, or dwarf-cactus, 133

---- visnaga, its immense size, 133

Elæis gumeensis, or oil palm-tree of West Africa, 158

Elands (Boselaphus oreas) of South Africa, 88, 409

Electrical eel (Gymnotus electricus), 17

---- ---- Indian mode of capturing them, 17

Elephant, plague of the Soudan fly to the, 231

---- his love of solitude, 431

---- his senses of smell and of hearing, 432

---- his mode of ascending and descending abrupt banks, 432

---- his stomach, 433

---- his trunk, 433

---- uses of his tusks, 433

---- his discipline, 434

---- his sagacity and devotion, 434

---- rogues, 435

---- value of the elephant to man, 435

---- species of the, 435

---- wide range of the African elephant, 435

---- mode of hunting him in various countries, 435

---- ivory of the African elephant, 436, 439

---- cutting up by a negro tribe, 437

---- escape of Mr. Oswell, 438

---- the Asiatic, 439

---- catchers, of Ceylon, 440

---- corrals, 441–443

Emu of Australia (Dromaius Novæ Hollandiæ), 391

Enarea and Caffa, the original home of the coffee plant, 178

Entomo phila picta, 370

---- albogularis, 370

Esmeralda, mosquitoes of, 233

Eucalypti of Australia, size of the, 159

Euphorbia arborescens of Africa, 122

Exocoetus volitans, 271

Eyes, acute inflammation of the, in the Puna, 21

Falcon (Falco sparverius) of the Peruvian sand-coast, 34, 246

Fan palms, crown of the, 161

Feejee Islands, verdure of, 6

---- ---- barbarous mode of treating turtles in the, 329

Felidæ of the tropical forests, 446

---- of the Old World, 446

Ferns of the tropics, 161

Fetissism of the negroes, 522

Ficus elastica, singular formation of the roots of the, 136, 139

---- ---- caoutchouc of the, 191

Fiery topaz, nest of the, 348

Fig, the Indian, the fruit of the melocacti, 134

Fig trees, climbing, of Polanarrua, 136

---- ---- marriage of the fig tree and palm, 137

Filaria medinensis, or Guinea worm, 226

---- ---- its mode of working, 226

---- ---- method of extracting it, 226

Finches of the tropics, 357

Fire-ant, the black, of Guiana, 274

Fire-flies of the Indian Archipelago, 210

Fishes, tropical, 65, 271

Fish-catching on a grand scale, 66

Fishing-eagle of Africa (Haliætus vocifer), 382

Flamingo (Phœnicopterus ruber), 357

---- long-legged, of the Puna, 28

---- its habits, 357, 361

---- its nests, 357

Flute-bird of Guiana (Cyphorinus cantans), 357

Fly-catcher, crowned (Myoarchus coronatus), of the Peruvian sand-coast, 34

Flying-dragons, 317

Flying-fishes (Exocœtus volitans, Pterois volitans), 271

Flying-foxes (Pteropus), 401

Flying-squirrels (Pteromys), 494

Forbes, Mr., his narrow escape from a Cobra di Capello, 299

Forest, primitive tropical, 53

---- its peculiar charms and terrors, 53

---- troubles of the botanist in the, 54

---- endless varieties of trees in tropical forests, 55

---- and of their sites, 56

---- lowland forests during the rainy seasons, 57

---- a hurricane in, 57

---- beauty of the forests after the rainy seasons, 58

---- birds of the tropical, 58, 59

---- morning, noon, and night in the forests, 59, 60

---- first impression of a tropical forest, 292

---- exaggerated fears, 293

---- few tropical snakes to be seen, 293

---- habits and appearance of venomous snakes, 293

---- anecdote of the Prince of Neu Wied, 294

Forest snakes, death caused by the bite of a Trigonocephalus, 295

---- antidotes recommended against serpentine poison, 295

---- vipers and rattlesnakes, 297, 298

---- the Cobra di Capello, 298

---- the asp and viper, 300

---- boas and pythons, 301

---- enemies of snakes, 302

Fox (Canis azaræ), the, of the high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 28

Fox-tailed monkeys, 513

Francisco, San, cordage used on the banks of the river of, 132

Frigate-bird, 267

---- ---- its mode of operation, 267, 268

Frog, the Brazilian and Surinam tree, 320

Frog-fish, the, 272

Fruit trees of the tropics, 145

---- ---- the chirimoya of Peru, 172

---- ---- the litchi, 172

---- ---- the mangosteen, 173

---- ---- the mango, 173

Fungus ant, 239

Gad-fly of South America (Œstrus hominis), ulcers produced by the, 225

Galapagos, or Tortoise Islands, 321

---- singular animal and vegetable life of the, 321

Galagos, the, 516

Galeopitheci, the, 495

Gallinazos, or turkey-buzzards, 378

Garapata (Ixodes sanguisuga), a kind of blood-sucking tick, 227

Garua, or drizzling mists, of the Peruvian sand-coasts, 32

Gasteracantha arcuata, 292

Gavials of the Ganges, 333

---- their attack of the tiger, 333

Gecko, the, 310, 311

---- its usefulness to man, 310

---- anatomy of its feet, 311

---- different species of, 311

---- defeats a Tarantula spider, 312

Gemsbuck of South Africa (A. Oryx), 88, 410

Gibbon, the, described, 503

Giraffe, or camelopard, its beauty, 403

---- its wide range of vision, 403

---- use of its horns, 404

---- its gregarious habits, 405

---- hunting, 405–408

---- his enemies in the forest, 408

---- known to the ancients, 408

---- analogies between the giraffe and ostrich, 408

Glow-worms of Europe, 210

---- ---- of Sarawak, 211

---- ---- worn as ornaments, 211

---- ---- soldiers forced to retreat before them, 211

Glyphodons, 272

Gnu (Catoblepas gnu), always found near water, 88, 411

---- the, of South Africa, 411

Goatsucker of Demerara, singular voice of the, 355

---- his usefulness, 355

---- his food, 356

Godin des Odonnais, M., accompanies La Condamine on his voyage, 52

Godin, Madame, her adventures, 52

Goliath beetles of the coast of Guinea, 206

---- ---- eaten, 252

Golunda coffee-rat, the, 182

Gomuti palm (Gomutus vulgaris), wine of the, 150

Gorilla, the, 500

---- encounter with a, 501

Grass, aquatic, on the shores of the Amazons, 45

Green turtle (Chelonia midas), 329

Grosbeak, the social, 366

Gua Gede, cavern of, 270

Gua Rongkop, cave of, and its esculent swallows’ nests, 270

Guadeloupe, tornado in, 9

Guadua bamboo, its importance in New Grenada and Quito, 130

Guama, Rio, singular vegetation on the banks of the, 137

Guana, great American, 314

Guanas of the Bahama Islands, 315

---- used as food, 315

Guano beds of sea-birds, 35

Guano Island, a, 30

Guano or Chincha Islands, 35

Guarana Indians, importance of the Mauritia palm to the, 18

---- ---- their singular habitations, 18

Gudgeon, close-eyed (Periophthalmus, or Jumping Johnny, of the mangrove swamps), 141

Guiana, beauty of the vegetation of the banks of the rivers of, after the rainy season, 58

---- birds of, 58, 350, 352

---- Goliath beetles of, 206

---- musical toad of, 320

Guinea worm (Filaria medinensis), 226

Gull, Quiulla (Larus serranus) of the Puna, 28

Gumatty, or fibres of the saguer palm, 151

Gutta percha, or gutta tuban (Icosandra gutta), its native country, 191

Gutta percha, its introduction into Europe, 191

---- ---- Malay mode of collecting the gum, 191

---- ---- properties of gutta percha, 192

---- ---- uses of gutta percha, 192

---- ---- supply of gutta percha, 192

Guayaquil, perennial rainy season of, 6

Gymnotus electricus, 17

Haje (Naja Haje), of Egypt, 300

---- probably the asp of the ancients, 300

Harpy eagle (Thrasaëtes harpya), 380

Hau, or Bow Island, 289

---- ---- ---- dreary monotony of a life at, 289

---- ---- ---- laziness of the natives of, 289

---- ---- ---- their customs, 290

Hawk, the sparrow, of Africa (Melierca musicus), 383

Hawksbill turtle (Chelonia imbricata), 329

Hercules beetles (Megasomina Hercules) of torrid America, 206

Hill-star, white-sided, 347

Hippopotamus, the Behemoth of the Book of Job, 417

---- its diminishing numbers, 417

---- its ugliness, 418

---- description of it, 418

---- ‘rogue hippopotami,’ or ‘bachelors,’ 419

---- intelligence and memory of the hippopotamus, 419

---- uses of its skin and teeth, 420

---- methods of killing it, 422

Hog, the chief enemy of the rattlesnake, 290

Honduras, mahogany trees of, 129

Honey-ants of Mexico (Myrmecocystus Mexicanus), their singular habits, 240

Honey-eaters of Australia (Melithreptes), 369, 375

---- their nests, 369

Hottentots, fondness of the lion for the flesh of, 448

Howling monkey, or aluates, 512

Huachua goose (Chloéphaga melanoptera), 28

Huallaga river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Huanacu, the, of Peru, 24

Humming-birds, 342, 346

---- ---- their wide range over the New World, 343

---- ---- their habits, 349

---- ---- their courage, 349

---- ---- their enemies, 363

Huniman, the (Semnopithecus entellus), 504

Hurricanes, 9

Hyæna, the, 463

---- hunting, 463, 464

---- varieties of the, 465

Hyphæne coriacea of Port Natal, 160

---- Thebaica, or doum palm, 157

Ibises, 357

---- of Egypt, 361

Iça river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Icebergs, wanderings of, 266

Ichneumon, or mongoos, his destruction of venomous serpents, 304, 305

Icosandra Gutta, furnishes the gutta percha of commerce, 191

Iguana tuberculata, 314

Illanuns of Mindanao, 256

India, bamboos of, 130

---- the indigo of, 192, 193

India-rubber tree (Ficus elastica), singular formation of the roots of the, 139. _See_ Caoutchouc

Indian forests, the Nepenthes of the, 12

Indians, wild, of tropical America, 62

---- Botocudo Indians attacking a jaguar, 62

---- physical conformation and moral characteristics of the Indians of tropical America, 63, 64

---- their powers of endurance, 63

---- their stoical indifference and taciturnity, 65

---- their means of subsistence, 65

---- not permitted to marry till they prove their ability in the chase, 67

---- their clothing, 68

---- their painting, tattooing, and religion, 69

---- the moon as the abode of abundance, 69

---- the Botuto, or holy trumpet, 70

---- the Indians of Brazil and Guiana, 70

---- vindictive ferocity of the Ottomachas, 71

---- the extinct tribes of the Atures, 72

---- dwellings of the Indians, 73

---- tattooing, 74

---- horrid custom of disinterment, 74

---- the Purupurus and their skin disease, 75

---- their palhetas, 75

---- the Mandrucus and Parentintins, 76

---- the Caribs and Botocudos, 76, 77

---- work of the women in their migrations, 78

---- the evil spirit Tanchon, 78

---- similarity of the North American Indians to the Bedouin Arabs, 119

Indigo plant (Indigofera tinctoria), Bengalese cutting the plant, 192, 193

---- ---- mode of cultivation, 192

---- ---- and of preparing the colour, 193

Insects, tropical, size of the, 205

---- of the Sikkim mountains, 84

---- of the tropical world, 205

---- insect plagues, 221

---- the universal dominion of, 221

---- mosquitoes, 222

---- the Œstrus hominis, 225

---- the chegoe, pique, or jigger, 225

---- Filaria medinensis, 226

---- the bête rouge, 227

---- blood-sucking ticks, 227

---- land-leeches of Ceylon, 228

---- the tsetse-fly, 229

---- the Tsalt-salya, or zimb, 230

---- the Soudan fly, 230

---- the locust, 231

---- cockroaches, 233

---- tropical insects directly useful to man, 234

---- ants of the tropics, 234

---- silk-worms, 249

---- cochineal, 250, 251

---- the gum-lac insect, 251

---- eaten by man, 251

---- worn as ornaments, 252

---- similarity of some to the soil or object on which they are found; the walking-leaf and walking-stick insects, 208

---- luminous, 210

---- ants and termites, 234, 241

---- spiders and scorpions, 211, 218

Island of Ascension, 328

---- Banda, 199, 200

---- Ceylon, 146

---- Madeira, 123

Islands:--

---- Bahamas, 328

---- Coral, 266, 275

---- Feejee, 329

---- Galapagos or Tortoise, 321

---- Keeling, 329

---- Kingsmill, 6

---- Sandwich, 281

---- Tortoise or Galapagos, 321

Jacana (Parra jacana), the, or surgeon-bird, 358

Jackal, the, of the Sahara, 456

Jagua Palm, elegance of the, 160

Jaguar (Gueparda jubata, guttata), 458

---- his habits in the impenetrable forests of South America, 459

---- his boldness, 458

---- hunting, 459

Jaguar said to possess the power of fascination, 462

Jamaica, pimento of, 203

Jaguarundi (Felis jaguarundi), 463

Java sparrow, or rice-bird (Loxia oryzivora), 164

---- extent of the coffee culture in, 181

---- the mormolyce of, 210

Javanese mormolyce, 209

Jelly-fish of the tropics, 274

Jiboya, or boa constrictor, 301

Jigger of the West Indies (Pulex penetrans), 225

Job, his description of Behemoth, 417

Jriarteas, roots of the, 143

Junghuhn, his explorations in Java, 154

Jungle-fowl (Megapodius tumulus), mound-like nest of the, 373

Jurua river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Jutay river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Kaffirs, their acuteness, 519

Kalahari, causes of drought in the, 85, 86

---- abundance of vegetation in the, 86

---- singular and useful plants of the, 87

---- Bushmen and Bakalahari of the, 88, 89

Kalongs, or fox-bats, of Java, 491

Kangaroo, Australians hunting the, 473, 474

Kaross, or skin dress of the deserts of South Africa, 92

Keeling Island, method of catching turtles on, 329

Kengwe (Cucumis Caffer), of the Kalahari, 87

Kilda, St., intrepidity of the natives of, 270

Kingsmill Islands, perennial rainy season of the, 6

Klippspringer (Oreofragus saltatrix), 411

Klipdachs, the, 382

Koodoo (A. Strepsiceros), of South Africa, 88, 411

Kordofan, baobab trees of, 103

---- delebl palms of, 158

Kunthia montana, height at which it will grow, 160

---- sent on rafts from Canton to Pekin, for the Emperor, 173

Lac, or gum-lac, 251

---- insect, the, 251

Lamellicorns, tropical, 205

Land-crabs, 272

Land leeches of Ceylon, 228

Lar, the, of Siam and Malacca, 503

Lauricocha, mountain lake of, 36

Leaf-like insects, 208, 209

Lecaniun coffeæ, or coccus of the coffee tree, 182

Leeches, land, of Ceylon, the plague of, 228

Leguminosas of tropical forests, 81

Lemur, slow-paced, 516

---- handed, 516

Leopard, the, 457

---- the hunting leopard, or cheetah, 458

Leucopholis bimaculata, 207

Libellula lucretia, a South American dragon-fly, 267

Licli, the, a bird of the Puna, 28

Lion, not a noble animal, 448

---- his conflicts with travellers on Mount Atlas, 447

---- his fondness for the flesh of the Hottentot, 448

---- hunting, 449

---- different species of the, 453

Litchi (Nephelium litchi), of China and Cochin China, 172

Lithophytes, or stone polyps, 275

Livingstone, Dr., his adventure with a lion, 450

Lizards of the Peruvian sand-coast, 35

---- their vast numbers in the tropics, 310

---- the gecko, 311

---- the anolis, 310, 312

---- chameleons, 313

---- iguanas, 314

---- guanas, 314

---- monitor-lizard, 315

---- water-lizards, 316

---- flying-dragons, 317, 318

---- the basilisk, 318

---- peculiar, of the Galapagos Islands, 321

Llama, its use to the ancient Peruvians, 23

---- the only animal domesticated by the aboriginal Americans, 23

---- its similarity to the dromedary of the Old World, 23

Llanos, the, of Venezuela and New Grenada, their extent, 11

---- their aspect in the dry season, 11

---- torpor of animal life in the, 13

---- and in the rainy season, 17

---- their appearance at the end of the rainy period, 18

Locust (Gryllus migratorius), description of the, 231

Locusts, vast numbers of them, 231

---- superstition of the Moslems respecting them, 231

---- Southey’s description of them, 232

---- eaten by man in the Sahara and South Africa, 251

Lodoicea Sechellarum, nuts of the, 154

Loggerhead turtle (Chelonia caouana), 331

Logwood, value of, 193

---- a native of America, 193

---- logwood cutters, their mode of life, 194

---- disputes with the Spaniards, 194

Lomas, or chains of hills, which bound the east of the sand-coast of Peru, 33

---- the pasture-grounds of the Lomeros, 33

---- beasts of prey in the Lomas, 33

Lonthoir, nutmeg trees of, 228

Loris, the, 516

Luminous beetles, 210

Lum tree of Ualan, singular formation of the roots of the, 143

Lybian desert, mirage of the, 13

Lyre-bird, 362

Maca, a tuberous plant, cultivated by the Indians in the high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 23

Macauba palm trees, encased by parasitic fig trees, 137

Macaw, or Ara (Macrocercus macao), 397

Mace of commerce, 202

Maco Indians, 70

Macus Indians, urari or wourali poison prepared by the, 68

Madagascar, traveller-tree of (Ravenala speciosa), uses of the, 169

Madeira river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Mahogany tree (Swietenia mahagoni) of British Honduras and Balize, 129

---- ---- value of the wood of the, 129

Maimon monkey, 509

Maize, cultivation of, 165

---- imported from America by Columbus, 165

---- its present cultivation in the eastern hemisphere, 165

---- its magnificent growth, 165

---- its enormous productiveness, 165

---- the harvest of, 166

---- its wide zone of cultivation, 166

Maldive Isles, mysterious nuts of the 154

Malayan race, the, 253

Malayan race, physical conformation of, 253

---- their betel-chewing, 254

---- their manners and customs, 254

---- accounts of them by travellers, 254

---- their intelligence and civilisation, 255

---- Rajah Brooke’s account of them, 255

---- their daring piratical excursions, 256

---- inveterate gamblers, 257

---- the Illanuns of Mindanao and the Balagnini of the vicinity of Sooloo, 256

---- their fondness for cock-fighting, 257

---- running a-muck, 258

---- bad agriculturists and artisans, but excellent sportsmen, 258

---- their ignorance, and its results, 259

---- knowledge and civilization of the Battas, 259

---- their cannibalism, and its origin, 259

---- men eaten alive, 260

---- the Begus, or evil spirits, 260

---- the religious feelings of the people, 261

---- their aërial dwellings, 261

---- funeral ceremonies of the Battas, 262

---- the Dyaks of Borneo, and their customs, 263

---- their head houses and atrocious murders, 263

---- the same atrocities of other islanders, 263

---- customs of the Minkokas of Celebes, 263

---- their sumpitans, or blow-pipes, 264

---- their houses and villages, 264

---- their hospitality and truthfulness, 264

---- Mrs. Ida Pfeiffer’s account of them, 265

Malay bear (Ursus malayanus), its love of cocoa-nuts, 149

Manakins (Pipra) of Guiana and Brazil, 351

Mandrill, the, 509, 510

Mandioca root, 169

Mandrucu Indians, 76

Mango (Mangifera indica), fruit of the, 173

---- varieties grown at Kew gardens, 173

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana), 173

---- its flowers and delicious fruit, 173

Mangrove tree (Rhizophora gymnorrhiza, R. Mangle), 140

Mangrove tree, its peculiarities of growth and adaptation to its site, 140

---- ---- its importance in furthering the growth of land, 140, 141

---- ---- animal life in the mangrove forests, 141–143

Manis pentadactyla, 482, 485

Mantichora mygaloides, 205

Mantis, or soothsayer, its habits, 208, 209

---- names by which it is known, 209

Mantides, 208

Mantis religiosa, 209

Maquiritani Indians, 70

Marajo Island, size of the, 38

Marañon river. _See_ Amazons

Marantea arundinacea, arrowroot made from the, 170

Marimonda, the (Ateles Belzebub), 513

Mauritia palm, 18, 19

---- ---- its importance to the South American Indian, 19

Mauritius, tornado in, 9

---- cultivation of nutmegs in, 201

Maysunah, song of, 109

Medanos, or sand hillocks, of the coast of Peru, 32

Mediterranean, the Cactus Opuntia of the, 134

Melocacti, the pulp of the, 134

Menura, or lyre-bird, 362

Menzaleh, Lake, flamingoes caught in nets on the banks of, 361

Mesembryanthemum, its admirable adaptation to the deserts of Africa, 87

---- various kinds of, 87

Mexico, Gulf of, influence of the heated plains of, in deflecting the trade-winds, 8

---- geological formation of, 79

---- the _tierra caliente_, or lowlands of, 80

---- vegetable and animal life of, 81

---- the _tierra templada_, 81

---- the _tierra fria_, 82

---- the Agave Americana of, 132

---- the pulque of, 132

---- cultivation of vanilla in, 184

---- the honey ant of, 240

Millet (Sorghum vulgare), cultivation of, 166

Mimosas of the tropics, their beauty, 134

Minkokas of Celebes, customs of the, 263

Mirage in the llanos in the dry season, 13

---- causes of the, 13

Miriki monkey (Ateles hypoxanthus) of Brazil, 67

Mocking-bird of Mexico (Cassicus persicus), 354

Mokuri plant, its importance to the inhabitants of the Kalahari, 87

Molluscs of the tropics, 274

Mongoos, or ichneumon, 304, 305

Monitor-lizard (Tejus monitor), 102, 315

Monkey-bread tree. _See_ Baobab

Monkeys and apes of the primitive forests, 496

---- their destruction of the sugar-cane, 176

---- of the Old World, 496

---- their climbing powers, 497

---- bad pedestrians, 497

---- contrasted and compared with man, 498

---- the chimpanzee, 499

---- the gorilla, 500–502

---- the uran, or wild man of the woods, 502

---- gibbons, 503

---- the semnopitheci, 504

---- the proboscis monkey, 504

---- the huniman, 504

---- the wanderoos of Ceylon, 505

---- the colobi and cercopitheci, 505

---- the magots of Gibraltar, 508

---- the baboon, 508, 509

---- the maimon, 509

---- the mandrill and drill, 509

---- wide difference between the monkeys of the New and Old World, 511

---- the aluate, or howling monkey, 512

---- the spider monkey, 512, 513

---- sakis, or fox-tailed monkeys, 513

Monsoon, the north-east, 17

---- the south-west, 8

---- effects of the sea monsoon on the ordinary course of the trade-winds, 8

Montgomery, Mr., his introduction of gutta percha into Europe, 191

Mora excelsa of the forests of Guiana, description of the, 129

---- nest of the toucan in the, 129

Mormolyce, the Javanese, 210

Mountain-taro, its habitat, 171

Mosquitoes, 222

---- of the Amazons, 45

---- ferocious, of the river Seuza, 222

---- and of tropical America, 222

---- migration of, 224

Moth, Atlas, of Ceylon, 207

Mule, the ‘ship of the desert’ in Peru, 31

Mulgrave Archipelago, importance of the screw pine of the, 133

Musa paradisaica, 167

Musa sapientum, 167

---- textilis, 169

Musaceæ, the, 167, 169

---- various uses of, 169

Musk-deer on the slopes of the Sikkim mountains, 84

Mutasen, the Caliph El, story of, 111

Mygales, or trap-door spiders, 218

Myrtus pimenta, 203

Naja Haje of Egypt, 300

Namaqua country, reason why droughts are prevalent in the, 86

Negro, Rio, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

---- ---- cause of its name, 39

Negroes, causes of the inferiority of their civilisation, 518

---- natural capabilities of the negroes, 519

---- difficulty arising from the geographical position of Africa, 520

---- and from the political position of it, 521

---- Mahometanism and fetissism, 523

---- their diseases attributed by the fetissist to ‘possession,’ 525

---- their belief in sorcery, 525

---- their chief religious observances, 526

---- human sacrifices in Ashantee and Dahomey, 526, 527

---- provision for the wants of the dead, 527

---- painting or tattooing the body, 528

---- the disfigurement of the pelélé, 528

---- authority of the priest, conjuror, or medicine man among them, 529

---- offerings to the sea at Bonny, 530

---- idleness of the negroes, 531

---- style of saltation in East Africa, 532

---- African slavery, and a slave-hunting expedition, 533

---- a slave caravan at Chartum, 534

---- belief of, respecting death, 74

Nelumbias of the tropics, 137

Nepenthes, the, of the East Indian forests, 12

Noddy bird (Sterna stolida), its attacks on the cocoa-nut tree, 149

Nopal (Cactus opuntia), the, of the shores of the Mediterranean, 134

Nutmegs, cultivation of, confined by the Dutch to Banda, Lonthoir, and Pulo Aij, 199, 200

---- their present extended range, in Sumatra, Mauritius, Bourbon, and Ceylon, 201

---- description of the tree, 201

Nutmegs, mode of cultivation, 202

Nyctopitheci, or nocturnal monkeys, 514

Nylghau, the (A. picta), 412

Nymphæas of the tropics, 137

Obydos, Strait of, 37

Ocelot (Felis pardalis), the, 463

Odontolabris Cuvera, of China, 205, 206

Œnocarpus disticha, oil of the, 159

Œstrus hominis, 225

Oil made from palm trees of West Africa, 157, 158

---- of the Corozo palm, 159

---- of the Œnocarpus disticha, 160

Opossum of the sand-coast of Peru, 34

Orchids, flowering, of the slopes of Sikkim, 83

Orellana, Francis, his voyage and treachery to Pizarro, on the Amazons 51

Organist bird (Troglodytes leucophrys), 356

---- his song, 356

Oricou, or sociable vulture (Vultur auricularis), 381

Origma rubricata, 370

Orinoco river, 37

Oriolus varius, 352

---- nest of the, 353

Orotava, in Teneriffe, gigantic dragon tree near, 123

Oscollo (Felis celigaster), the, 463

Ostrich, its endurance of thirst, 75

---- mode of hunting it, 368

---- its speed, 385

---- mode of catching it, 386

---- its stratagem for protecting its young, 386

---- its enemies, 386

---- its young, 387

---- its resemblance to the camel, 387

---- its voracity, 388

---- its feathers, 388

---- domesticated in Algeria, 388

---- analogies between the giraffe and ostrich, 408

---- an Arab Legend respecting it, 389,390

Ottomacas Indians, 70

---- become ‘dirt-eaters,’ 71

---- the country they inhabit, 71

Ouistitis, or squirrel monkeys, 515

Owl, burrowing (Athene cunicularia), of the Peruvian sand-coast, 34

---- the pearl, of the same region, 34

Pacific Ocean, limits of the trade-winds in the, 4

Pacific Ocean, causes of the distribution of rain on the Pacific off Central America, 8

---- ---- violent tropical storms of, 9

Palhetas of the Purupurus, 75

Pallah (Antilope melampus), always found near water, 88

Palm-martin (Paradoxus typus or Pougouni), its fondness for cocoa-nuts, 147

---- stalks of, used as arrows, 67

Palm-squirrel (Sciurus palmarum), its fondness for cocoa-nuts, 149

Palm trees, 146

---- the cocoa-nut tree, 146

---- the sago palm, 150

---- the saguer or gomuti, 150

---- the areca palm, 151

---- the palmyra palm, 151

---- the talpot or talipot palm, 153

---- cocoa de mer, 153

---- date palms, 154

---- doum palms, 157

---- oil palms, 157, 158

---- the Carnauba (Corypha cerifera), 158

---- the Ceroxylon andicola, 159

---- the cabbage palm, 159

---- the corozo, 159

---- the pirijao and piaçava palms, 160

---- cabeza di negro, 160

---- different physiognomy of palms according to their heights, 160

---- position and form of their fronds, 160

Palma Real of the Havana, beauty of the, 161

Palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis), extent of its range, 151

---- ---- its uses to man, 151, 152

---- treatment of the toddy-drawer, 152

Pangolin, the Indian (Manis pentadactyla), 482, 485

Panther, the, 457

Pao Barrigudo (Chorisia ventricosa), singular shape of the, 134

Paper, Chinese, material of which it is made, 131

---- made from the talipot tree of Ceylon, 153

Papuans, their dwelling-places, 276

---- their physical and moral characteristics, 276, 277

---- compared with the Malays, 277

---- their food and clothing, 277, 278

---- their immense houses in New Guinea, 278

---- their political institutions, 279

---- their agriculture and weapons, 279

---- their mode of fighting, 279

---- future prospects of the race, 280

Para, perennial rainy season of, 6

Para, population of, 49

Paradise, great bird of (P. apoda), 363, 364

---- fables respecting, 364

Paradoxus typus or Pougouni, 134

Paraguay, constant east winds of, 5

Parentintin Indians, 76

Paroquets, or parakeets, 398

---- ring and green, 398

Parrots of the Peruvian sand-coasts, 34

---- their peculiar manner of climbing, 392

---- their resemblance to monkeys, 392

---- their food, 393

---- their sociability, 393

---- their connubial love, 394

---- their powers of mimicry, 394

---- African (Psittacus erithacus), 394

---- his dreams and memory, 395

---- American Indian mode of catching them, 395

---- various species of them, 395, 396

---- the colours of, artificially changed, 396

Parsley, a deadly poison to parrots, 416

Pasco, Cerro de, 37

Peacock, Javanese, the, 360

Pebas, heavy fall of rain at, 8

Peireskia of the Lake of Titicaca, 134

Pepper, 202

---- description of the vine, 202

---- mode of cultivation, 202

---- its habitat, 202

---- the black and white sorts, 202

Peradenia, india-rubber trees of the garden of, 139

Peru, the Puna, or high table-lands of, 20

---- Puna chases in the times of the Incas, 27

---- the Lomas of, 33

---- the sand-coast of, 29

---- extreme dryness of the soil in the northern coast districts of, 33

---- animal world of the coast, 33

---- the Guano or Chincha Islands, 35

Peruvian stream, influence of the, on climate, 36. _See_ Amazons

Pfeiffer, Mrs. Ida, her account of the Malays, 265

Phasmas, the herbivorous, 208, 209

Pheasant, Argus, 360

Phœnix dactylifera, or date palm, 153

Phylliums, the herbivorous, 208, 209

Phyllosomas, 272

Phyllostomidæ, 492

---- their food, 492

Physalia, or ‘Portuguese man-of-war,’ 274, 275

Phytelephas (Cabeza di Negro), hard white nuts of the, 160

Piaçava palm (Attalia funifera), uses of the nuts and fibres of the, 160

Pichiciago (Chlamyphorus truncatus), of the Andes, 488

Pig-faced baboon, 510

Pimento, or allspice (Myrtus pimenta), 203

---- cultivation of the plant, 203

---- its habitat, 203

Pine-apple (Bromelia ananas), its abundance in Brazil, 132

Pines, the screw, of the East Indian and South Sea Isles, 133

---- their importance to the inhabitants of the Mulgrave Archipelago, 133

Pippul tree of India. _See_ Bo tree

Pipra, the, 366

Pique, or Jigger, of the West Indies, (Pulex penetrans), 225

Pitcairn Island, storm and famine in, 9

Plantain (Musapara disiaca), its importance as food, 167

---- luxuriance of the plant, 168

Podada tree of the river banks of Borneo, 210

Polanarrua, climbing fig trees of, 136, 137

Polynesian fishermen, 276

---- race, the, 280

---- their degree of civilisation, 281

---- their physical characteristics, 281

---- their languages, 281

---- their cultivation of the taro, 281

---- food of the various classes, 281

---- their intoxicating beverage, kava, 282

---- their dresses of tapa, 282

---- their desire for adornment, 282

---- their canoes and basket-work, 282

---- their joiners’ work, 283

---- admirable swimmers, 283

---- their dwellings, 284

---- their form of government, 284

---- the Tabu, 285

---- the Polynesian gods, 286, 287

---- their infanticide, 286

---- influence of European customs, 288, 289

Pongo de Manseriche, defile of, 36

Porcupine ant-eater (Echidna hystrix), 488

Pororocca, or spring-tide wave of the Amazons, 38

‘Portuguese man-of-war,’ 275

Potato, the Spanish or sweet (Convolvulus batatas), 170

---- its spontaneous multiplication, 170

---- propagation of, 170

Pothos family of epiphytes of the tropical forests, 137

---- beauty of the leaves, 137

Prêcheur insect, 209

Prie Dieu, Le, insect, 209

Priest, conjuror, or medicine man of the negroes, 529

Proboscis monkey, the (Semnopithecus nasicus), 504

Pterois volitans, 271

Ptilotus sonorus, 370

Pulex penetrans of the West Indies, 225

Pulque, or Mexican agave wine, 132

Puma, or couguar, in the high table-lands of tropical America, 28, 462

Puna, or ‘Uninhabited’ high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 20

---- their contrast with the Llanos, 20

---- violent changes in their temperature, 21

---- plagues of the Puna, 21

---- vegetable life of the, 22

---- animal life, 23–28

---- chases in the times of the Incas, 27

---- beasts of prey of the, 28

---- birds of the, 28

---- flocks and herds of the Puna valleys, 28

---- the mountain valleys, 28

Purus, river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Quagga, the, of South Africa, 414

Queñua tree (Polylepis racemosa) in the Puna, 23

Quito, perennial rainy season of, 6

Rain, abundance and distribution of, within the torrid zone, 4

---- causes which produce an abundance or want of, 4

---- heavy afternoon showers of the zone of calms, 6

---- zone of two distinct rainy seasons, 7

---- and of one rainy season, 7

---- immense quantity of, in the tropics, 8

---- no rain in the northern coast-districts of Peru, 35

---- the garua or drizzling rain of Peru, 32

Rarotonga Island, devastation of, by a tropical storm, 9

Rat, its attacks on the cocoa-nut tree, 149

---- its destructive ravages in sugar plantations, 177

---- the Golunda, or coffee rat, 182

Ratans, their immense length, 154

---- uses of, 154

Rat-snake of Ceylon (Coryphodon Blumenbachii), domesticated, 308

---- its agility in seizing its prey, 308

Rattlesnakes, 297, 298

---- their rattle, 298

---- different species, 298

---- their chief enemy, 298

---- eaten by Indians, 298

Reedbok (Electragos arundinaceus), 410

Red River, mosquitoes of, 233

Rehoboth, larvæ of locusts in myriads at, 255

Reptiles of the Peruvian sand-coast, 41

---- of the tropics, 310

Rhamphastidæ, 360

Rhea Americana, 390

---- Darwinii, 390

Rhinoceros, the, its brutality and stupidity, 423

---- different species of, 423

---- food and dispositions of the black and white kinds, 424

---- their ugliness, 424

---- their size, 424

---- their acuteness of smell and hearing, 425

---- defective vision, 425

---- their friend the Buphaga Africana, 425

---- their paroxysms of rage, 426

---- their nocturnal habits, 426

---- rhinoceros-hunting and its perils, 427

---- the Indian rhinoceros, 429

---- the Sumatran kind, 430

---- the Javanese rhinoceros, 430

---- mode of killing it, 430

Rhinolophi, or horse-shoe bats, 493

Rhododendron nivale, great elevation at which it grows, 84

Rhododendrons, region of the Alpine, in the Sikkim mountains, 83

Rice (Oryza sativa), 165

---- original seat of its cultivation, 165

---- various aspects of the rice-fields at different seasons, 164

Rice-bird or Java sparrow (Loxia oryzivora), 164

Rivers of the tropics:--

---- Amazons, 5 _et seq._

---- Barima, Upper, 130

---- Berbice, 137

---- Coary, 37

---- Guama, 137

---- Huallaga, 37

---- Iça, 37

---- Jurua, 37

---- Jutay, 37

---- Madeira, 37

---- Marañon, 5 _et seq._

---- Negro, 37, 46

Rivers of the tropics, _continued_:--

---- Orinoco, 37

---- Purus, 37

---- Tapajos, 38

---- Teffee, 37

---- Tunguragua, 36

---- Ucayale, 37

---- Xanavi, 37

---- Xingu, 38

---- Yapura, 37

---- prolific quality of the rivers of South America, 66

Rock-warbler of Australia, 371

Roots of trees, singular formation of the, 143

Ruby-throated humming-bird, 349

Ruminants, tropical, 399

Sacrifices, human, of the negroes, 527

Sago-palm (Sagus farmiferus), the, of the Indian Archipelago, 150

---- ---- treatment of the, 150

---- ---- mushrooms growing on the, 150

Saguer, or Gomuti palm (Gomutus vulgaris), uses to which it is put, 150

Sahara, the, 4, 93

---- constant drought of the, 4

---- north-easterly winds of, 5

---- its uncertain limits, 93

---- its desolate appearance, 94

---- chasms and mountain streams, 94

---- deposits of salt, 94

---- the oases of the wilderness, 94

---- tribes of the Sahara, 94

---- contrast between the sterile desert and the oases, 95

---- grandeur of the desert scene, 95

---- its fascination for the traveller, 96

---- sandspouts, or trombs, in it, 97

---- the simoom, 98

---- sandspouts, 97, 98

---- the chase of the gazelle in the, 101

---- animals of, 101, 102

---- periodical rains of the, 103

---- the Tuaregs and Tibbos of the, 103

---- caravans of the, 103

---- barrier caused by the desert to civilisation, 521

Saïmiris monkey, the, 514

Sakis, or fox-tailed monkeys, 513

Sand-reed (Ammophila arundinacea), of the coasts of the Kalapari, 87

Sandwich Islands, verdure of, 6

---- Islanders, food of the, 281

Saüba, or Coushie ant (Oecodoma cephalotes), 236

---- ---- ---- the enemy of the banana and cassava plantations, 236

Savannahs of South America during the dry season, 13

---- a savannah on fire, 14

---- their aspect during the rainy season, 15

---- and at the end of the rainy period, 15

Saw-bill humming-bird, 317

Scalaria pretiosa, 274

Schomburgk, Richard, his discovery of the Victoria Regia, 137

Scorpions, immense size of, in the torrid zone, 218

---- fatal effects of their bite, 219

---- their habitat, 219

---- their suicidal propensities, 219

---- their ferocity and cruelty, 220

Scotophilus Coromandelicus, the, 494

Screw-pines. _See_ Pines

Sea-birds, tropical, 267

---- of the Peruvian sand-coast, 35

---- arctic, 266

Seals of the Peruvian sand-coast, 35

Secretary-bird, his destruction of snakes, 302

Secretary-eagle (Serpentarius cristatus), his destruction of snakes, 302

Semnopitheci, the, 504

Senegambia, light-coloured races at, 522

Sensitive plants of Brazil, 135

Sericornis citreogularis, 370, 371

Serpents. _See_ Snakes

Shark, the white, his ferocity, 271

Sherbet, the doum palm used for the preparation of, 157

Ship of the desert. _See_ Camel

Siamang of Sumatra, the, 503

Sikkim mountains, slopes of the, 82

---- ---- sylvan wonders of the, 82

---- ---- changes of the forests on ascending, 83

---- ---- the torrid zone of vegetation, 83

---- ---- the temperate zone, 84

---- ---- the coniferous belt, 84

---- ---- limits of arboreal vegetation, 84

---- ---- animal life, 84

---- ---- firing the jungle in, 131

Silk-worm (Bombyx mori), its importance to man, 249

---- antiquity of silk in China, 249

---- silk of other worms, 249

Simoom, the, of the Sahara, 98, 99

Sloth, the, 477

---- his miserable appearance, 477

---- adaptation of his organisation to his peculiar mode of life, 478

---- his means of defence, 478

---- his tenacity of life, 480

---- genera of the sloth, 480

Snake-tree (Ficus elastica), the, 139

Snakes of the Peruvian sand-coast, 35

---- of the tropical forests, 293

---- comparative rareness of venomous, 293

---- habits of venomous, and their external characteristics, 294

---- bite of the trigonocephalus, 295

---- antidotes, 295

---- fangs of venomous serpents, 296

---- the enormous bush-master, 297

---- the brown viper (Echidna ocellata), 297

---- the rattlesnake, 297

---- the Cobra di Capello, 298

---- the asp and viper, 300

---- boas and pythons, 301

---- enemies of, 302

---- sometimes feed on one another, 304

---- their means of locomotion, 305

---- anatomy of their jaws, 306

---- feeding-time at the Zoological Gardens, 307

---- useful and agreeable to man, 308

---- adaptability of their colour to their pursuits, 309

---- water, 309

Sorcery of the negroes, 526

Soudan, destructive fly of, 230

South Sea Islands, verdure of, 6

---- ---- ---- screw pine of the, 133

Sparrow-hawk of Africa (Melierca musicus), 383

Sparrow, Baya, 367

Sperm whales, 267

Spices of the tropics, 197

---- cinnamon, 198

---- nutmegs and cloves, 199

---- pepper, 202

---- pimento, 203

Spiders, tropical, formation of, 211

---- their means of attack and defence, 211, 212

---- spotted spider of Makololo, 212

---- giant webs of several tropical species, 212

---- harmony of colour between the Aranæ and their usual haunts, 212

---- beautiful colouring of the epeiras, 213

---- splendid colours of the spiders of the tropics, 214

---- the mygales, or trap-door, 215

---- retreats of the genus Clubiona, 215

---- maternal instincts of, 216

---- enemies of, 216

---- venom of the, 217

---- services rendered by spiders to man, 217

---- eaten by several savage nations, 217

---- encounter between a spider and a cockroach, 218

Spiders, encounter between a mygale and a humming-bird, 349

Spider monkeys, 536

Spondylus, the royal, 274

Spoonbill of America (Platalea ajaja), 357

Springbok (A. enchora), 409

---- migrations of multitudes of, 409

Spring-tide waves of several rivers, 38

Squirrels, flying, 494

Squirrel monkeys, or ouistitis, 515

Stag-beetle (Odontolabris Cuvera) of China and Northern India, 206

Sternocera chrysis and sternicornis, elytra of, worn as ornaments, 252

Storks, Marabou, use of the, 304

Storms, tropical, violence of, 9

---- tornados and cyclones, 9

Sucuriaba, or water-boa (Eunectes murinus), 301

Sugar, commercial importance of, 174

---- original home of the sugar-cane, 175

---- progress of its cultivation throughout the tropical zone, 175, 176

---- mentioned by several classical authors, 175

---- known to the Greeks and Phœnicians, 175

---- introduced into Europe by the conquests of Alexander the Great, 175

---- and into Madeira by the Portuguese, 175

---- its importance as an article of international trade, 175

---- introduced into the Canary Islands and thence to Hispaniola, 176

---- the Chinese species supplanted by the Tahitian kind, 176

---- description of the cane, 176

---- manufacture of sugar, 176

---- destruction of many enemies, 176

---- the enemies of the sugar-cane, 176

---- diseases of the sugar-cane, 177

---- nutritive qualities of its juice, 177

---- uses of the sugar plantation to the invalid, 178

---- ants, ravages of the, 177, 236

Sumatra, cultivation of nutmegs in, 201

---- rhinoceros of, 447

Sumpitans, Malay, 264

Sun-birds, or suimangas (Cinnyris), 359

Sun-fish, the, 271, 272

Surumpe, or acute inflammation of the eyes in the Puna, 21

Swallow, the esculent (Colocalia esculenta), 269

---- mode of getting the nests, 269, 270

---- the dicæum (Dicæum hirundinaceum), 371

Sword-fishes, 271

Sword-tail fishes, 271, 272

Sycamore tree (Ficus sycomorus), gigantic specimens of the, in Africa, 124

Tacca pinnatifida, arrowroot made from the, 171

---- ---- in Polynesia, 171

Tahitians, civilisation of, 288

Tailor-bird of Hindostan (Sylvia sutoria), 368

Talegalla, or brush-turkey of Australia, 372

Talpot, or talipot, tree of Ceylon, uses to which it is applied, 153

Tanchon, the Indian evil spirit, 78

Tangaras, the, of the Peruvian sand-coast, 34, 351

---- their flight and song, 351

Tapajos river, a tributary of the Amazons, 38

Taro roots (Caladium esculentum) of the Sandwich Islanders, 171, 281

---- ---- its abundant growth, 171

---- ---- mode of cooking it, 171

---- ---- mountain taro (Caladium cristatum), 171

Tarsii, their habitat, 516

Tarsius bancanus, 517

Tarush (Cervus antisiensis), an animal peculiar to the Puna, 27

Teak tree, or Indian oak (Tectona grandis), 128

---- ---- its excellent timber, 128

Tectona grandis, or Indian oak, 128

Teffe river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Teju, or monitory lizard (Tejus monitor), of South America, 315

---- food of, 315

Termites, or white ants, 241

---- their devastations, 241

---- their services and uses, 242

---- their communities and astonishing buildings, 242

---- the termites of the West Coast of Africa, 242

---- formation of a termite colony, 244

---- wonderful fecundity of the queen, 244

---- courage and obstinacy of the termite soldier, 245

---- foes of the termites, 246

---- East Indian mode of emptying a termite-hill, 246

---- their wars with the black ants, 247

---- termites used as food, 247

---- marching termites, 247, 248

---- mysteries of termite life, 248

Termes atrox and bellicosus, their clay-built citadels or domes, 242

Termes destructor arborum, their dwellings in trees, 242

Texas, influence of the heated plains of, in deflecting the trade-winds, 8

Thierry de Meronville, his attempts to introduce cochineal into San Domingo, 251

Tierra caliente, the, of Mexico, 80

---- templada, 81

---- fria, 82

Tiger, the time for his bloodthirsty excursions, 453

---- his chief seats, 453

---- tiger-hunting, 453, 455

---- his companionship with the peacock, 454

---- destroyed by the gavial of the Ganges, 333

---- his mode of attack, 455

---- his destruction of the tortoise, 457

---- beetle of South Africa, 205

Toads of the tropics, 310

---- the Pipa Surinamensis, 318

---- the Bahia toad, 319

---- the Surinam toad, 318

---- the giant toad, 320

---- the musical toad of Guinea, 320

Toddy-bird of Ceylon (Artamus fuscus), 152, 367

Toddy made from the cocoa-nut palm, 148

---- and from the palmyra palm, 152

---- and from the date palm, 155

Tomependa, rafts on the Amazons river first appear at, 36

Tornados, 9

Toropishu (Cephalopterus ornatus), 355

Tortoises of the tropics, 321

---- the gigantic land-tortoise (Testudo indica, elephantina), 321

---- their fondness for water, 322

---- their locomotion, 323

---- Mr. Darwin’s ride on one, 324

---- tortoises not indigenous in Australia, 324

---- marsh (Emydæ), of America and the Indian Archipelago, 324

---- river, 325

---- attacked by wild dogs and tigers, 457

Toucans (Ramphastidæ), 345, 346

---- their quarrelsome habits, 345

---- their nests, 129

---- anecdote of the arrogance of one, 345

Trade-winds, the, 4, 5

---- their limits in the Northern Atlantic, 4

---- ---- and in the Pacific, 4

Trap-door spiders, 215

Traveller tree of Madagascar (Ravenala speciosa), uses of the, 169

Tree-snakes, 293

Troglodytes audax of Peru, 234

Troopials (Icterus Xanthornus) of Guiana, 352

---- the variegated tropical (Oriolus varius), 352

Trunk-fish, the, 272

Tsalt-salya, or zimb, of Abyssinia, 230

Tsetsé-fly of South Africa (Glossina morsitans), 229

---- its destruction to cattle and horses, 229, 230

---- range of its pestiferous influence, 229

---- action of the poison, 230

Tucanos, tattooing of the, 74

Tunguragua river, 36

Tunqui bird (Rupicola Peruviana), 355

Tunuhy, the Sierra, rise of the Rio Negro in, 37

Tupinambaranas, Island of, 37

Tumeric or Indian saffron, 242

Turkey of Honduras (Meleagrisocellata), 360

---- the brush or tallegalla, 372

Turkey-buzzards, 378

Turtles of the tropics, 326

---- colossal, of the Brazilian coast, 326

---- foes of the turtle tribe, 327

---- of the island of Ascension, 328

---- mode of taking them at Ascension, the Bahamas, and at Keeling Island, 328, 329

---- green turtle, 329

---- barbarous treatment of, at Feejee and Ceylon, 329, 330

---- food of, 331

Tusseh-worm (Bombyx mylitta), silk filaments of the, 249

Ualan, island of, singular roots of the Lum tree on the, 143

Uaupes Indians, 73

---- ---- their tattooing, 74

Ucayale river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Unaus, the, 496

Uran or Mias, or wild man of the woods, 502

---- how they are caught by Dyaks, 503

Urari, or wourali, poison, 67, 68

Urceola elastica, caoutchouc of the, 191

Uropeltis Philippinus, 292

Ursus malayanus, its fondness for cocoa-nuts, 149

Utah, influence of the heated plains of, in deflecting the trade-winds, 8

Vampires, 492

Vanilla (Vanilla aromatica), growth and uses of, 184

Vanilla, cultivation of, in Mexico and Java, 184

---- a rare and costly spice, 184

Vargas, Sanchez, his fate, 51

Vejuco de huaco (Mikania Huaco), an antidote against snake-bites, 295

Velella, the, 274

Venado, a species of deer, of the sand-coast of Peru, 34

Veta, a disease caused by the rarefaction of the air in the high table-lands of Peru and Bolivia, 21, 22

---- effect of, in arresting putrefaction, 22

Veys, their recently invented alphabet, 519

Victoria Regia, discovery of the, 137

Vicuña, its solitary habits, 25

---- value of its wool, 25

---- its appearance, 25

---- Indian mode of hunting it, 26

---- mode of preparing its flesh, 26

---- its enemies, 27

Viper, small brown (Echidna ocellata), of Peru, its fatal bite, 297

Viscachas, the, of Peru, 27

---- of the Pampas, 27

Vomito, the, 81

Vultures, Carrion, of the Peruvian sand-coast, 35, 379

---- of America, 378, 379

---- king of the (Sarcoramphus papa), 379

---- of the Old World, 381

---- sociable, 381

Wading-birds, tropical, 360

Walking-leaf insect, 208

Walking-stick insect, 208

Wanderoos of Ceylon (Presbytes cephalopterus), 496, 505

Water-lizards (Hydrosauri), 316

---- ---- Mr. Adams’ contest with one, 316

---- ---- their habitat, 317

---- ---- worshipped at Bonny, 317

Water-plants of the tropics, 137

Water-snakes, 301, 309

Wax obtained from the Carnauba palm, 158

Wax obtained from the Ceroxylon andicola, 159

Weaving-birds, African, 364

---- their nests, 365

West Indies, invalids from Europe residing in the, 178

Winds, the system of, and its importance, 4, 5

---- trade-winds, and polar and equatorial air-currents, 4, 5

---- constant east-winds of Paraguay, 5

---- deflections from the ordinary course of the trade-winds, 8

Wine of the Agave Americana, 132

---- of the gomuti palm, 150

Woodpecker, 60

---- orange-coloured of Ceylon (Brachypterus aurantius), 374

Wood-nymph, a humming-bird of Brazil, 347

Wourali, or urari, poison, 67, 68

Wou-wou (Hylobates leuciscus), the 503

Xavari river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Xingu river, a tributary of the Amazons, 38

Yacu-mama of the Amazons, 45

Yams (Dioscorea sativa and alata), 170

Yapura river, a tributary of the Amazons, 37

Yaruras Indians, 70

Yriartea exorrhiza, 161

---- ventricosa, 161

Zancudo, bite of the, 233

---- on the Magdalen river, 224

Zebra, Burchell’s, or douw, 415

---- its piteous wailings, 416

---- its inaccessible retreats, 416

Zelgague, the, or skink, of the Sahara, 102

Zimb, or tsalt-salya of Abyssinia, 230

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