CHAPTER VI

CONSTRUCTING THE ARGUMENT

The last step has left us with the completed brief,—sound, logical, and comprehensive. In some cases the task ends here, the brief being constructed for its own sake and left to stand as a cold, formal, logical framework upholding the truth of the proposition. In this form it may be laid by for those who are to pass upon its validity, or the advisability of adopting or rejecting the proposition which it supports; or the author may explain its structure in an extemporaneous speech. More often, however, the brief is but the framework of the argument which is to be built upon it, giving the whole structure grace and strength.

In this final process great care must be taken to make sure that the naked framework is entirely covered. No rough edges or angular corners should be left protruding from the finished product. The whole structure must be made attractive, and impressive, just as the steel framework of a great building is enveloped in solid walls of stone and marble made elegant by the sculptor’s art.

The distinction between conviction and persuasion, which was pointed out in a previous chapter, again enters into the argumentative process. For purposes of discussion we may assume that the brief itself produces conviction because it shows clearly that the proposition is right. But the naked brief is as cold and formal as a proposition in geometry. Hence it is the task of the written or spoken argument, based upon that brief, to arouse the emotions so that it may move the will and thus end in persuasion. Now, if every individual were a perfectly rational being the brief would be all that would be necessary to arouse to action, because by itself it shows what is right and what ought to be done. But real men in everyday life are not perfectly rational beings. Their reasoning processes are influenced by environment, education, prejudices, and acquired habits of thought. The emotions of men, too, play a large part in shaping their conduct. Therefore, a process must be instituted in their minds which reaches persuasion through their combined thoughts and feelings.

From the psychological standpoint we may divide this process into three stages, I., Attention; II., Interest; and III., Desire. From the argumentative standpoint we may divide the process into three parts corresponding to the three parts of the brief, viz., I., Introduction; II., Proof; and III., Conclusion. Now it will be seen that the psychological process bears a logical relation to the argumentative process, and that this relation is one of cause and effect. The end of all argument is action. If the argument is successful it creates in their order the mental and emotional conditions of attention, interest, and desire. That is, the introduction, proof, and conclusion of the argument result in the attention, interest, and desire of the individual mind. These processes begin at the same point, since the introduction secures the attention of the reader or hearer; they proceed along the argumentative road together, since the proof must maintain the active interest of the reader or hearer; and they end at the same point, because the conclusion, if successful, leaves the mind with a desire for action. Briefly stated, the introduction arouses the attention; the proof maintains the interest; and the conclusion creates the desire.

=I. Attention—aroused by the introduction.=

The first duty of a written argument is to get itself read; the first duty of an oral argument is to get itself heard; therefore the argument must attract the attention of the reader or listener in the beginning or introduction and must hold his attention throughout the proof. If attention is not secured at the beginning of the argument it is seldom secured at all, for the reader will throw the uninteresting argument aside in disgust, while the listener will allow his thoughts to wander to other subjects. Thus it is evident that the necessity for arousing the attention by means of the introduction is very great.

In order that we may clearly apprehend the relation which should exist between the introduction and attention let us consider, 1. The kinds of attention, and 2. The methods of securing proper attention by means of the introduction.

_1. Kinds of attention._

_A. Natural attention._

Natural attention requires no effort of the will to bring the mind to bear upon the subject in hand. The human mind, when not engaged on some definite object, attends in an effortless way to practically every marked change in the circumstances with which it is surrounded. To things that meet our approval we give our attention willingly, but if we are displeased or bored by any happening we give our attention unwillingly. Therefore the object of the introduction is to please in order that attention may be given willingly.

When a speaker walks out on a platform and faces the audience he at once attracts the spontaneous attention of practically everybody in that audience. This much is easy. The problem that now confronts the speaker is to begin his speech by saying something which will turn this spontaneous attention into fixed attention. By fixed attention is meant such attention as willingly follows the train of thought which the speaker has to present. If the introduction is properly prepared this fixed attention will be the result, but if the introduction is not properly prepared the natural attention of the audience quickly degenerates into what we may term Assumed Attention.

_B. Assumed attention._

This kind of attention is not given willingly, but is assumed by the audience merely because it happens that the speaker has placed himself on the platform and there is nothing left for the audience to do but to listen to him. Now this assumed attention on the part of the listeners may pass through several degrees of intensity, depending upon the kind of audience and the degree of the lack of skill with which the speaker proceeds. At first the speaker is treated to the ordinary manner of any audience not especially interested in what is being said. This attitude quickly degenerates into indifference, a point at which the audience does not care what the speaker says or whether he says anything. Such a condition as this often continues throughout an entire speech, and the sooner the speaker realizes that fact and brings his argument to an end the better. The next stage of assumed attention is that of abstraction. At this stage the speaker does not even receive the indifferent attention of the listeners. The mind of each individual before him wanders off to some subject in which he is interested personally and the speaker might just as well be talking to empty seats. Usually this is the least desirable stage of assumed attention. Under some conditions, however, it is possible to reach a still less desirable stage, which we may call, for the purpose of making an exhaustive division of this subject, incivility. At this stage the individuals of the audience manifest their displeasure by talking among themselves, and making uncomplimentary remarks about the speaker.

The above discussion will serve to make clear the kind of attention the speaker must attempt to create by means of his introduction. We shall now consider some of the methods by which the proper kind of attention may be secured.

_2. Methods of securing proper attention._

_A. Immediate statement of purpose._

One of the most effective methods of securing the natural attention of the audience is by an immediate statement of the purpose of the discourse. It will be remembered that in the preparation of the brief the student was cautioned against the evils of a long introduction. He will also recall that the introduction was to contain only the main issues and the essential steps in the analysis by which they were reached. This same brevity should characterize the introduction to the argument. The audience is naturally interested in what the speaker believes and the reasons for his arguing in favor of or against the proposition. Therefore he may gain the fixed attention by stating at once just what he purposes to do. An extreme form of this kind of introduction would be as follows:

“There are two reasons why we maintain that the Federal Government should levy a progressive inheritance tax; first, because the national government needs it as a source of revenue; and second, because it will remedy the evils resulting from ‘swollen’ fortunes.

“The Federal Government needs this tax as a source of revenue because, etc.”

This introduction is an immediate statement of the purpose of the argument and will secure the attention of either reader or hearer.

In addressing an audience there are some cases in which just such an introduction should be used; for example, when previous speakers have dwelt upon the analysis of the question, or have given full dissertations on the origin or history of the subject, or lengthy definitions of terms and explanations of processes of reasoning. Again, such an introduction may be used when the time limit is very short or where the audience is presumed to be thoroughly familiar with the subject under discussion. Lincoln uses this method in introducing his discussion on the necessity of a settlement of the slavery struggle, as the following introduction to his Springfield speech will show:

“If we could first know where we are, and whither we are tending, we could better judge what to do and how to do it. We are now far in the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to the slavery agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation has not only not ceased, but has constantly been augmented. In my opinion it will not cease until a crisis shall have been reached and passed. ‘A house divided against itself cannot stand.’ I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved; I do not expect the house to fall; but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the states, old as well as new, North as well as South.”

In this introduction it is seen that Lincoln comes at once to the point: “I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.” He makes his introduction complete by repeating this idea so that no one can fail to understand the point he is making. The two sentences which precede his statement and the three sentences which follow it state the same idea in different forms. In an introduction the speaker must not only make his position so plain that it can be understood, but he must make it so plain that it cannot be misunderstood. This is what Lincoln does in the introduction to his Springfield speech and it is what must be done in every effective speech of this character.

The introduction quoted above touches lightly upon the origin and history of the question with the simple statement: “We are now far into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to slavery agitation. Under the operation of that policy, that agitation has not only not ceased, but has been constantly augmented.” More extended statements of the history here alluded to are given further on in the argument at such places as they are needed. Here in the Introduction merely the significant results of origin and history are stated in the briefest possible form. This method of stating the introduction well illustrates the application of the general principle that extensive treatment of facts of origin and history should not be allowed to interfere with the immediate statement of the purpose of the argument.

_B. Illustrative story._

Sometimes the fixed attention of the audience or reader may be gained by the use of an illustrative story. No speaker or writer should attempt to use this method of introduction unless he is absolutely confident of his ability to carry it through successfully. A story must conform to the following rules before it can, with safety, be adopted for the purpose of an introduction:

(1) The story must be interesting.

(2) The story must be well told.

(3) The story must be obviously connected with the point which the arguer wishes to bring out.

If the story be of the comic variety, and is to be told orally, the speaker must make sure that the audience will laugh with him and not at him. Nothing is more fatal to natural attention than a story which “falls flat.” Regarding the aptness of the story as illustrating the point which the speaker wishes to make, it need only be suggested that the connection must be obvious. If any explanation is required after the story is told it usually serves to kill attention rather than to create it. The connection must be so obvious that the speaker is able to lead his auditors skillfully from the story directly to the point at issue.

_C. Quotations._

A third method of introducing an argument is by the giving of a familiar quotation, or a quotation of the opposing speaker or someone concerned in the controversy. Such a quotation must be very plainly connected with the subject, and its bearing on the point which the speaker wishes to make must be evident. In this respect the requirements of an introductory story and an introductory quotation are identical. An example of an introduction in which a quotation is used is that of the speech of Roscoe Conkling in which he urges the nomination of Ulysses S. Grant for President. This introduction begins as follows:

“When asked what state he hails from Our sole reply shall be He comes from Appomattox, And its famous apple-tree.”

Likewise a speech advocating the adoption of free silver in our monetary system began with

“There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which taken at the flood leads on to fortune.”

In some cases the quotation may be used merely to secure the immediate attention of the audience. In such a case it must bear directly on the circumstances of the occasion, as when the third speaker in a college contest took advantage of the two preceding speakers, who had both forgotten their speeches and had been compelled to retire from the platform, by beginning his speech with the quotation,

“Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet Lest we forget, lest we forget.”

The effort was a decided success, if success were to be judged by the amusement of the audience, but it only prolonged the time required to get the attention of the audience fixed on the serious subject which the speaker wished to present. Such a quotation may attract attention, and if that is all that is required, well and good; but the usual requirement is to attract attention in such a way that it will be fixed on the subject in hand. Therefore the temptation to attempt comedy should be carefully guarded against, and quotations should be used which will procure more substantial results.

Of the three methods for securing proper attention herein given the first is by far the most important and the most useful. The second and third methods should be attempted only when the circumstances are most favorable as measured by the principles stated in this discussion. The student must keep constantly in mind the object to be gained by the introduction, namely,—the natural fixed attention of the audience.

=II. Interest—maintained by the proof.=

_1. Necessity._

The necessity of maintaining the attention of the reader or hearer throughout the proof is obvious. No permanent results can follow an argument which is not fully comprehended. Even though the closing paragraphs arouse the emotions, and a strong persuasive appeal is made in the conclusion, they only result in persuasion, and we have learned that in an effective argument conviction and persuasion must exist together.

_2. Methods of maintaining interest._

_A. Appropriate treatment._

The task of maintaining the interest of auditors or readers is made much easier if the writer will pause in his preparation and consider the appropriateness of his treatment of the subject. In order to make this treatment appropriate three factors must be considered: (1) The speaker or writer, (2) The audience or reader, (3) The time or occasion. The argument in order to be effective must be especially adapted to all of these factors.

_a. Adaptation to speaker or writer._

The writer of an argument, whether the argument is to be written out for the purpose of being read or whether it is to be delivered in the form of a speech, must take into consideration his own power and ability. With these clearly in mind he must present his subject in a way which seems natural and spontaneous. Never should an attempt be made to imitate the manner of any particular speaker or writer. Such attempts always appear unnatural, strained, and artificial, as in truth they are. The keynote of adapting a speech to the speaker is sincerity. Sincerity begets naturalness. To be sincere and know that he is in the right leads the speaker to treat his subject in a manner which will show forth the best qualities of his character.

The argument should manifest the utmost fairness. It should be clear that the speaker or writer desires truth and justice to prevail. When stating an opponent’s position for purposes of refutation the speaker or writer should be sure that his statements are fair and reasonable and will bear the inspection of unprejudiced judges. If genuine sincerity and absolute fairness are put into an argument they will go far toward adapting it to the personality of the author.

_b. Adaptation to audience or reader._

As a basis for this sort of adaptation a real sympathy with those to whom the argument is to be addressed is essential. In fact the arguer must be able to take their view of the subject. He must realize that an argument which is to be presented to a working-man must be, in a way, different from one which is to be presented to a banker. To be sure, the essence of the argument may be the same, but when the task of developing the brief into a finished product is undertaken, these different standpoints must be considered.

Not only must this adaptation be considered from the standpoint of those engaged in different occupations in life, but the predominating political, social, religious, and scholastic temperament must also be considered. Especially is this true if the beliefs of the audience or readers differ from those of the speaker or writer. Usually the speaker realizes the importance of the latter situation but very often does not know just how to meet it. Here again sympathy is the keynote. Nothing should be said which will give offense. The speaker must prepare carefully each step in his argument so as to lead the audience with him. In the beginning a common basis must be found, then the true attitude of the arguer may be made apparent as he proceeds.

An instance of this gradual leading on of the audience is found in “Julius Caesar,” where Mark Antony addresses the citizens after the murder of Caesar. The statements of “a plain blunt man” attach a much different significance to the “honorable men” at the close of the argument from that which was given in its beginning. Had Antony reversed the order of his speech he would have been deliberately killed instead of being hailed as a leader. He adapted his argument to his audience. He led them along step by step until in the end they arrived at the inference which he wished to establish and then with a fiery conclusion he aroused in them the desire for action. Not once did he lose their interest, because his treatment of the subject-matter took into account their personal, financial, social, and political welfare. This classical example illustrates well the maintaining of interest by that method of appropriate treatment which adapts the argument to the audience.

An example of a speaker addressing an audience of an entirely different class from that to which he himself belongs is that of Booker T. Washington on the occasion of the opening of the Atlanta Exposition. Mr. Washington had great difficulty in determining how he should take up his subject. But he was wise enough to apply the principle of sympathy with his audience, and the result was an address which stands as a monument to his wisdom. He, himself, says that: “No two audiences are exactly alike. It is my aim to reach and talk to the heart of each individual audience, taking it into my confidence much as I would a person. When I am speaking to an audience I care little for how what I am saying is going to sound in the newspapers, or to another audience, or to an individual. At the time, the audience before me absorbs all my sympathy, thought, and energy.” Again he says, referring to the occasion above mentioned, “I was determined to say nothing that I did not feel from the bottom of my heart to be true and right.”

Lincoln had some very strong misgivings about the reception of his Cooper Institute speech. It is said that he felt “miseries of embarrassment from his sense of the unaccustomed conditions, the critical and refined audience, his own ungainliness, and his ill-fitting and wrinkled clothes.” But after he began to speak his embarrassment disappeared. It was merged into sympathy with his audience, the people of New York City, for whom he had especially prepared the address. How well he succeeded in his adaptation we all know, and Nicolay and Hay say in their account:

“Yet, such was the apt choice of words, the easy precision of sentences, the simple strength of propositions, the fairness of every point he assumed, and the force of every conclusion he drew that his listeners followed him with the interest and delight a child feels in its easy mastery of a plain sum in arithmetic.”

Every speech must be so adapted to the audience that it will maintain just this kind of interest from the beginning to the close.

_c. Adaptation to time or occasion._

The final requirement of appropriate treatment is that the argument be suited to the time or occasion. Every kind of occasion has an individuality born of its environment. The political argument of a candidate for office will have a somewhat different setting from the same argument delivered in the halls of congress. A brief for an argument might well serve for both occasions, but when that argument is written out the time or occasion of its presentation must be considered. The arguer can almost always foresee the circumstances of the particular occasion or time of presentation and thus adapt his argument to them. Formal college or intercollegiate debates before competent judges and with a definite limit as to the length of the speech would demand that the brief be developed in the most terse and direct manner possible; whereas the same argument to be delivered before a Political Science Club, with no judges and no time limit, might be developed much more fully and adapted to the occasion in a widely different manner. In conclusion, we must not forget that an argument intended to be read must be adapted to the writer, the reader and the time; whereas, an argument written for oral delivery must be adapted to the speaker, the audience, and the occasion.

_B. Logical structure._

The very fact that a discourse is to take the form of an argument causes those to whom it is addressed to look for logical structure and clear reasoning. This expectation must not be ignored. The argument must not only _be_ logical, but it must _appear_ logical. This logical structure can be clearly set forth when the argument is written out, by means of frequent statements of the divisions of the argument and their relation to each other, summaries, and transition sentences and paragraphs. The arguer should first tell what he has to prove, then show all along that he is proving it, and finally call attention to the fact that he has proved it. If this is well done the logical structure of the argument is made obvious.

The argument must also show logical progress. We have already seen the necessity of making the introduction as brief as is consistent with the other requirements. This requirement regarding brevity must be observed throughout the development of the brief. Every statement must be developed to such an extent as to bring out clearly the central thought, but when this has been done the writer must pass at once to the next point, thus showing that some real progress is being made. An argument which moves slowly tires the reader or hearer. Therefore the temptation to elaborate a point in the brief upon which the writer has a large amount of information should be carefully guarded against. Each argument must be stated clearly, with supporting evidence to the point, and the proof furnished by the evidence plainly shown. This logical progress will aid greatly in maintaining interest in the proof of the argument.

_C. Style._

Style is the manner of selecting and arranging words, sentences, and paragraphs in such a way that they will produce an intended effect upon the reader or hearer. From this definition it will be seen at once that style is a very important factor in argumentation. The argument is constructed with the express purpose of producing an intended effect upon the reader or hearer, and style is a necessary aid. The outward appearance of things enhances their usefulness. Manufacturers are on the constant lookout for designs which are really artistic and pleasing to the eye. It is even claimed that the appearance of food affects its digestion. Certainly, therefore, an argument ought to possess such style that it will appear in the most favorable light.

Style, however, must not be considered an external thing. It is not a trick by which an argument may be decorated for parade. Style is the thought and the man behind that thought. It is the thought presented in all its native force and completeness; it is the man with all his earnestness and sincerity put into his words. No writer or speaker can obtain good style by imitating that of another person. It must be the natural expression of his own personality.

_a. Elements of style._

(1). _Vocabulary._

The selection of the words in which the argument is expressed is highly important. The manuscript should be repeatedly revised with the object of securing a clear and forcible diction. A general term should not be used where a concrete term can be employed. All unusual words should be eliminated and replaced with words which are familiar.

Connotation may enter into the diction of an argument as well as into other forms of prose. There is a fitness possessed by certain words to express certain shades of meaning which must be utilized by the arguer. This regard for the connotative significance of words should guide in their selection throughout the argument.

Significant expressions and combinations of words should also be brought in for the purpose of heightening the effect of the argument. These combinations may be such as are used for political campaign watchwords. Greater force may be given to them by repetition, as in the case of the sturdy Roman orator who always closed his speech with the words “Carthage must be destroyed.” Alliteration may also be employed with good effect, as in the case of the college debater who, when opposing a further increase in our navy, designated a battleship as “A devilish device designed to murder men.” Such suggestions bring ideas to the mind with so much vividness that the impression which they make is not easily effaced.

(2). _Sentences._

In framing the sentences of an argument the writer must consider whether it is designed for oral delivery or merely for the purpose of being read. If the latter, the rules of ordinary composition furnish a sufficient guide, but, if the former purpose is to be considered special attention must be given to sentence-structure. The writer should test each sentence as it is written by actually reading it aloud or by building a mental concept of the way in which it will sound when stated orally. The meaning must be plain, since if the hearer does not grasp it as the sentence is spoken he cannot grasp it at all. To aid in this clearness, long and involved sentence-structure should be avoided. Short, terse sentences should predominate. Both balanced and periodic sentences may be made to contribute to the oratorical quality which an argument should possess, but they must not interfere with that brevity which makes for clearness. The following extract from the argument of Daniel Webster in the White murder trial well illustrates the clearness which results from the use of terse sentences.

“The criminal law is not founded in a principle of vengeance. It does not punish that it may inflict suffering. The humanity of the law feels and regrets every pain it causes, every hour of restraint it imposes, and more deeply still every life it forfeits. But it uses evil as a means of preventing greater evil. It seeks to deter from crime by the example of punishment. This is its true, and only true main object. It restrains the liberty of the few offenders, that the many who do not offend may enjoy their liberty. It takes the life of a murderer that other murders may not be committed.”

(3). _Paragraphs._

A paragraph should be devoted to each subdivision of the argument. Each paragraph must be a complete unit. Its length should vary with the importance of the subdivision to which it is confined. The sentence in the brief which it is designed to elaborate should stand as the key sentence of the paragraph.

_b. Qualities of style._

(1). _Clearness._

The most important quality of style is clearness. Clearness is a valuable aid to interest, for the human mind delights in lucidity. The audience or reader will seldom take the trouble to figure out exactly what idea is intended to be conveyed. Most audiences are lazy and must be assisted to think. The way in which a conclusion is to be reached must be pointed out to them. Hence the necessity of making plain an argument which is to be delivered orally is especially great.

Error can easily be smuggled into an argument under cover of confused language, but clearness shows forth the argument in such a light that any mistake must be apparent. This satisfies the minds of those addressed, because they can see and judge for themselves. Moreover, there is a quality of elegance coming from perfect clearness which carries conviction with it. If clearness is lacking, grave errors may be lurking in the obscure phrasing of the discourse and the reader or hearer cannot feel satisfied in his own mind. Therefore, for the sake of the writer and for the sake of those to whom the argument is addressed, clearness should be the predominating quality of style.

It is not amiss at this point to quote in full the famous description of eloquence from Webster’s oration on Adams and Jefferson. It is not only a description but it is a great example of the thing described. The student will do well to ponder over it and try to realize the full significance of every statement.

“Clearness, force, and earnestness are the qualities which produce conviction. True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech. It cannot be brought from far. Labor and learning may toil for it, but they will toil in vain. Words and phrases may be marshalled in every way, but they cannot compass it. It must exist in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion. Affected passion, intense expression, and pomp of declamation, all may aspire to it; they cannot reach it. It comes, if it comes at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth, or the bursting forth of volcanic fires, with spontaneous, original, native force. The graces taught in the schools, the costly ornaments and studied contrivances of speech, shock and disgust men, when their own lives, and the fate of their wives, their children, and their country, hang on the decision of the hour. Then words have lost their power, rhetoric is vain, and all elaborate oratory contemptible. Even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued, as in the presence of higher qualities. Then patriotism is eloquent; then self-devotion is eloquent. The clear conception outrunning the deductions of logic, the high purpose, the firm resolve, the dauntless spirit, speaking on the tongue, beaming from the eye, informing every feature, and urging the whole man onward, right onward to his object,—this, this is eloquence; or rather it is something greater and higher than all eloquence,—it is action, noble, sublime, godlike action.”

Simplicity of expression is an important aid to clearness. No speaker should strive for effect alone. The simplest words and the simplest sentences should be chosen. Fine writing or high sounding language should be avoided. The writer should make use of that directness which characterizes his conversation when he is in earnest.

Concreteness is a most important aid to clearness, for general statements make little impression upon the average mind. To secure the best effect concrete particulars must be used to amplify and illustrate all general statements. This not only makes the meaning of the speaker more clear but it also gives a force and vigor to the idea presented. In fact, some writers have named concreteness as the most important aid to force. In Alden’s _Art of Debate_ a speaker during the time of the Chicago strike is quoted as having moved his hearers to enthusiasm by declaring: “If necessary, every regiment in the United States army must be called out, that the letter dropped by the girl Jennie, at some country post-office back in Maine, may go on its way to her lover in San Francisco, without a finger being raised to stop its passage.” This is concreteness as distinguished from generality. How much less clear and less forcible would be the general abstract statement that “If necessary, the whole force of the United States army will be called into action for the purpose of preventing interference with the mails.”

Instead of making the general statement “There has been a constant improvement in the methods devised by man for killing his fellow men in war,” the idea would be more concrete if expressed in the following terms: “Ever since Shamgar slew the opposing army of the Philistines with an oxgoad man has been improving the instruments of war until to-day we have the modern dreadnought weighing thousands of tons and costing millions of dollars.” Or, the idea can be presented in a still more concrete manner by stating the following facts: “Ever since David, the shepherd boy, picked a pebble from the brook; placed it in his sling; threw it and killed Goliath, man has been improving the method of throwing things at his fellow men, in order to kill them, until to-day we have the thirteen inch gun, which throws a projectile weighing one thousand pounds a distance of thirteen miles.” These concrete instances when elaborated become illustrations or illustrative instances. In fact, the last statement given above might be dignified with the name illustration. Lincoln in his Cooper Institute speech aptly illustrated the attitude of the South toward secession when he said: “But you will not abide the election of a Republican President! In that supposed event you say you will destroy the Union! and then, you say, the crime of having destroyed it will be upon us! That is cool. A highwayman holds a pistol to my ear and mutters through his teeth ‘Stand and deliver or I shall kill you, and then you will be a murderer.’” Again Lincoln uses a most clear and forcible illustration in his Springfield speech when he presents the following argument from analogy:

“We cannot absolutely know that all these adaptations are the result of preconcert. But when we see a lot of framed timbers, different portions of which we know have been gotten out at different times and places and by different workmen,—Stephen, Franklin, Roger, and James, for instance,—and when we see these timbers joined together, and see they exactly make the frame of a house or a mill, all the tenons and mortices exactly fitting, and all the lengths and proportions of the different pieces exactly adapted to their respective places, and not a piece too many or too few,—not omitting even scaffolding,—or, if a single piece be lacking, we see the place in the frame exactly fitted and prepared yet to bring the piece in—in such a case, we find it impossible not to believe that Stephen and Franklin and Roger and James all understood one another from the beginning, and all worked upon a common plan or draft drawn up before the first blow was struck.”

Such concrete illustrations as are contained in the above quotation should abound in every argument. The homelier the illustration, the more pronounced the effect. It requires no especial insight into human nature to see that such incidents as those quoted above will hold the interest of the audience or reader much more effectively than cold, formal, generalized statements. Therefore, the student should make use of concreteness, and, in fact of all rhetorical devices, for the purpose of making his argument clear and interesting. Even narratives of some extended length may be introduced when they are especially pertinent to the point at issue.

Clearness is aided by making plain in the argument that unity which exists in the brief. All matter which does not tend to explain or prove the main proposition should be excluded. It is dangerous for the arguer to enter into lengthy explanations, for they may be but digressions from the main argument. It is of course assumed that the brief possesses unity. The temptation to include matter merely because of its interest is always strong, but the student must apply the test of immediate relevancy and be guided by it. The final acceptance of the argument by the reader or hearer is aided or hindered by his impression of the unity or solidity of its construction. The brief should be strictly followed in order that unity may be apparent.

Coherence is also an important aid to clearness. The coherence which exists in the brief must be expressed in the argument. The connective “for,” which is used in the brief to show the relation subordinate statements bear to the main statements, must be expanded in rhetorical style so as to bring out plainly the force of the relation which it expresses. In the effort to secure coherence the arguer should not hesitate to repeat the main issues or even to show how they stand as proof of the proposition. Every fact of evidence must be made to stand out distinctly as proof for some statement in the argument. Otherwise the evidence will be mere dead weight, loading down instead of supporting the contentions of the arguer.

Connective words, such as “for,” “because,” “hence,” “therefore” should abound throughout the proof for the purpose of showing precisely what relation exists between a fact and a statement, or a statement and a main issue, or a main issue and the proposition. Every fact of evidence must be clearly connected with the statement which it proves; every statement supported by evidence must be connected directly with the main issue which it proves; and every main issue must be connected directly with the proposition which it proves. This must be done not by inference, but by an expressed connection. The connection may appear so obvious that it seems foolish to put it in words, but experience shows that the connective must be expressed or it will not be comprehended. If the connections are not expressed the argument will appear incoherent. Therefore, transitional sentences must be used frequently. When two or more facts of evidence are offered in support of one statement the words “First”, “Second”, and “Third”, or “Moreover”, “Again”, “Furthermore” should be used. At the end of the enumeration what all these facts tend to show regarding the proposition should be stated.

Coherence is not obtained by chance. To obtain it requires the greatest care in the original writing out of the argument. A careful process of revision must then be instituted to make sure that no fact of evidence is left standing without its appropriate relation to the proposition being clearly stated. Any break in coherence may mean the loss of part or all of the evidence offered in support of a main issue.

One of the classical examples of argument noteworthy for its coherence, and the one most often recommended for study in connection with the subject of coherence, is Burke’s _Speech on Conciliation_. In that part of the argument which treats of the American love of freedom, the skill displayed in making transition from part to part, and the general effect of coherence which results from this treatment are most conspicuous.

The following extracts taken from a portion of the argument will illustrate Burke’s method of making his discourse coherent. The dots indicate omissions.[3]

Footnote 3:

After reading the selections here given the student will do well to make a study of the speech itself and scrutinize closely the substance of the parts which these statements serve to connect as well as the manner of connection. The first sentence may be taken as the main issue which Burke intends to offer evidence to prove; then come the sentences which mark the connection of the most important facts of evidence offered in support of the issue; and finally the summary which again calls attention to the connection existing between these pieces of evidence and the proposition contained in the first statement.

“In the character of the Americans, a love of freedom is the predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole ... this (results) from a great variety of powerful causes.... First, the people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen.... Their governments are popular in a high degree.... If anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of government, religion would have given it complete effect.... The people are Protestants; and of the kind which is most adverse to all implicit submission of mind and opinion.... (The Church of England tends to offset this influence in the Southern colonies). There is, however, a circumstance attending these colonies, which in my opinion, fully counterbalances this difference.... It is, that in Virginia they have a vast multitude of slaves. Where this is the case in any part of the world, those who are free are by far the more proud and jealous of their freedom.... Permit me, Sir, to add another circumstance in our colonies, which contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit. I mean their education. In no country perhaps in the world is the law so general a study.... The last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is hardly less powerful than the rest, as it is not merely moral, but laid deep in the natural constitution of things. Three thousand miles of ocean lie between you and them.... Then, Sir, from these six capital sources: of descent; of form of government; of religion in the northern provinces; of manners in the southern; of education; of the remoteness of the situation from the first mover of government; from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty has grown up....”

These transition sentences seem to imply a strong coherent argument, and, when taken in connection with the context, they form an almost perfect example of argumentative coherence.

Usually the first sentence of a paragraph developing a new argument is the transition sentence. Sometimes a more extended transition becomes necessary, in which case more than one sentence, or even an entire paragraph, may be devoted to the transition from one part to another. All of the methods suggested above may be properly employed in giving the argument coherence.

In this discussion of clearness many things have been considered which must be taken into account when reading the discussions of Force and Elegance. No division of style can be absolute nor can a complete exposition of its qualities be attempted without much repetition. The student must therefore treat this division of subject-matter as helpful only in emphasizing the qualities which his argumentative writing and speaking should possess.

(2). _Force._

We speak of a “forcible argument” with respect because it indicates something substantial. Force must pervade any writing or speaking which aims to arouse to action. The material must be presented in an impressive manner. By so doing we create a keener interest and bring to the minds of our readers or hearers a more vivid realization of the significance of our argument. Therefore after all the devices heretofore considered have been employed to make the argument interesting, the finished product should be considered with a view to determining whether it is the most forcible piece of work that can be produced. Perhaps some slight change in the way in which these devices have been employed will give a better effect. If so, the modification should be carefully attended to in order that the argument may possess in its highest degree the quality of force.

The force of an argument depends in large measure upon the proper use of emphasis. Emphasis is the means by which attention is called to the importance or special significance of any portion of the argument. One of the ways in which any part of the subject-matter may be emphasized is by expanding or dwelling upon that part. This must always be done with due consideration for the other parts of the argument. Hence it happens that proportion is used as a means to secure emphasis. The writer must determine the really vital parts of his argument and aim to give emphasis to them alone, because every point cannot be emphasized. An attempt to emphasize everything results in no emphasis whatever. Everything must not be on the same dead level, because if it is the audience or reader will soon lose interest. We sometimes speak of the important points as the “high places” in the argument. These “high places” must exist, because it is impossible for the reader or hearer to remember all the details of a lengthy argument. He will, however, remember the important points, providing they have been properly emphasized.

We now turn to the methods by which the best use can be made of the space devoted to the emphasizing of any particular point. The use of metaphors, similes, and epigrams is an effective mode of emphasis. An apt metaphor or simile will remain in the minds of readers or hearers long after the trend of the argument is forgotten.

Another method frequently employed for the purpose of securing emphasis is that of the rhetorical question. Since such a question implies an answer favorable to the party asking it, it must appear plainly that the answer is bound to be as he desires. In the Lincoln-Douglas debates both speakers made frequent use of this method, and Webster, in emphasizing the necessity of finding the murderer of Captain John White asks, “Should not all the peaceable and well disposed naturally feel concerned, and naturally exert themselves to bring to punishment the authors of the secret assassination? Was it a thing to be slept upon or forgotten? Did you, gentlemen, sleep quite as quietly in your beds after this murder as you did before? Was it not a case for rewards, for meetings, for committees, for the united efforts of all the good, to find out a band of murderous conspirators, of midnight ruffians, and to bring them to the bar of justice and law?”

The use of repetition for the purpose of emphasis is most important. In employing this method care should be taken not to overdo it, as such a process is always fatal to interest. The central idea should be repeated, but the phrasing should be skillfully varied so as to prevent the repetition from becoming monotonous. Furthermore, the point of view should be changed. This not only serves to change the manner in which the idea is presented but will help to hold the interest. Perhaps one point of view will appeal more strongly to some people than to others. Hence by changing the point of view the greatest number of people are influenced. It must be kept in mind, however, that it is not the point of view of the writer which changes but merely the point of view from which he presents the part of the argument to be emphasized.

(3). _Elegance._

As has already been suggested, the appearance of an argument has a great deal to do with the manner in which it is received. By appearance is meant the way in which it appears to the mind of the person addressed. If it appears to be a stiff, formal, arrogant piece of work it may only excite intellectual curiosity instead of arousing interest and creating desire. The argument must appeal with freshness and vivacity to the person addressed. It is no small task to form an elegant forensic from a solid, rigid brief.

From the student’s study of ease, grace, elegance, and rhythm as found in books of rhetoric, he will have obtained a fair idea of the quality of elegance and can make an intelligent effort to secure it in his own work. But the most effective way in which to acquire a sense of elegance is by the study of those masterpieces of argument which possess this quality to a high degree. Rules cannot be formulated nor practicable principles laid down for obtaining this quality. Just as the musician acquires a sense of what is proper and what is not proper in his art, so, must the writer of an argument acquire a sense of what is proper and what is not proper by a study of the works of those who have been masters in the art of argumentation. The simple elegance of Lincoln’s style, the impressive elegance of the style of Webster, and the fiery elegance of which Patrick Henry was master, must be studied earnestly by the student. The orations of Webster, the speeches of Burke, and the arguments of Lincoln should be read over and over again. Favorite passages should be committed to memory and all the speeches should be read for the purpose of being enjoyed. This will impart a wealth of expression and an elegance of style which can be obtained in no other way.

In considering the subject of “Interest—Maintained by the Proof” let the student remember that all the methods herein suggested stand ready to aid him in his supreme desire to be heard if he will but master them and make them his servants.

III. Desire—created by the conclusion.

Attention has been previously called to the fact that the practical application of introduction, proof, and conclusion to the creating of attention, interest, and desire is approximate rather than absolute. The main part of the argument which is contained in the proof carries forward the work of persuasion. It creates a desire to understand the whole truth about the proposition discussed. When we say that the desire is created by the conclusion we mean that all the good effect produced by the proof is summed up and presented in such a forcible manner that it awakens the desire for action.

The proof has maintained the interest of those to whom the argument is addressed. It has established a firm basis in rational desire. The object of the conclusion is to arouse emotions sufficient to move the will. In order that it may do this it should be in the form of an appeal for the adoption or defeat of the resolution. To understand the way in which this plea or appeal should be made it is necessary to understand the forces which influence the individual to act. These forces are known as the qualities of want. The desire to act results from one or more of the following seven causes.

_1. Necessity._

If the proof which has been presented for or against the proposition shows that the proposed measure is necessary the conclusion should make necessity the basis of the plea. Necessity is a strong basis for an argument. If a thing is a necessity, all reasonable persons will agree that it should be adopted, providing there is no predominating circumstance which makes its adoption inadvisable. Lincoln urged upon his hearers the necessity of settling the slavery question, Patrick Henry urged the necessity of resistance to the tyranny of England, and Daniel Webster urged the necessity of holding the Union inviolate. By showing that a thing is necessary, that disaster will follow inaction, orators have aroused the energies of men in order that great reforms might prevail. The speaker who can show that the cause of action which he advocates is necessary to the state, to the community, or to the individual has made a strong plea for its adoption.

_2. Interest._

By an appeal to interest we do not mean anything unworthy of either speaker or hearer. Legitimate self-interest is perhaps the strongest motive which incites men to action. This trait of the human character should not be lost sight of by the student of argumentation. In one way or another almost every proposition may be made to appeal to the self-interest of the individual. For the purpose of being systematic we may consider this self-interest under the three heads, Convenience, Pleasure, and Profit.

_A. Convenience._

If it can be shown that the adoption of a definite course of action will be for the convenience of the individual a strong point in its favor has been established. If emphasis can be placed upon the fact that it will be for the convenience of the community as a whole the argument will be still stronger, for some people love to flatter themselves that they are considering the interests of their fellow men as well as of themselves, and many people are honest in this impulse. Moreover, this public spirit is an actual factor in determining the actions of men. Such an argument is especially valuable in discussing local questions. In advocating the building of a new bridge, the granting of concessions to a proposed railroad or street car line the appeal to the convenience of the people of the community is very strong. By the application of a little ingenuity in connecting the points of the argument with the everyday life of the people to whom it is addressed, the effectiveness of the conclusion may be greatly increased.

_B. Pleasure._

The average person is inclined to accept that which is pleasing to him and reject that which is displeasing. In the construction of the proof we have been trying to keep interest alive by presenting our subject in an interesting manner. In the conclusion we must sum up this matter in such a way as to conform to the pleasure of those addressed. The building of a new theatre, a town hall, or a park may be made to appeal to many interests of the community, but after all is said the fact remains that the main justification for such buildings rests upon the pleasure which they give to individual members of the community. As in the case of convenience, this element of pleasure may be utilized with practical results in the closing plea.

_C. Profit._

The strongest appeal to self-interest can be made by showing that the action advocated will result in profit to the individual. By showing that a proposed plan of taxation will result in lowering the yearly amount of tax which John Jones will have to pay, you will probably secure the vote of John Jones in favor of your proposition. By showing that the purchase of a potato digger will increase the amount of money which a farmer can make raising potatoes, you have gone far toward convincing that farmer that he should buy a potato digger. By showing that consolidation will yield greater profit to the business man you have done much to persuade him to join the combination. By showing that the lowering of the tariff schedule will reduce the cost of living you may induce many persons to advocate a lower tariff. In every argument self-interest plays an important part. The conclusion should therefore leave firmly fixed in the mind of the reader or hearer the fact that the action advocated will be for his best interests.

_3. Jealousy, vanity, and hatred._

An appeal to the baser passions of mankind is not to be commended. Nevertheless, we are here treating of real arguments in a real world. Since the end of argumentation is action, and since jealousy, vanity, and hatred are motives which stir men to action, we must consider them. Personal motives may furnish subsidiary inducements to action. The jealousy which one business man feels toward his competitor may induce him to adopt new methods of doing business in order that he may outdo his rival. The vanity which a manufacturer feels in the superiority of his goods may be the determining factor in the adoption of improved machinery. The hatred which the honest citizen entertains for boss rule may be the determining factor in deciding the way he will vote. The ingenuity of the student must be employed in trying to fathom the unseen causes which guide the activities of his fellows.

_4. Ambition._

The ambition of an individual to excel in his business, trade, or profession; the ambition of a community to have the best social and educational advantages; and the ambition of a nation to outreach the world in trade and commerce, may all form the substantial basis for action. By appealing to this praiseworthy ambition the emotional element is added to the element of intellectual conviction.

_5. Generosity._

Every human being is moved at times by generous impulses which may arise from a variety of causes. The arguer should study these causes and attempt to stimulate the impulses. Dignify the position of those to whom the appeal is made by showing them that they can well afford to be generous.

_6. Love of right and justice._

The arguer should never fail to leave his hearers with the conviction that he champions a just cause. This appeal can always be made, because under no circumstances should anyone champion a cause which is unjust. In this age people as a whole are willing to do the right thing, despite the actions of particular individuals or groups of individuals to the contrary. Abstract justice in its application to the particular proposition should form the basis of the final plea.

_7. Love of country, home, and kindred._

The hearts of men have always been stirred by the appeal to patriotism. Action in its most intense form will follow the right appeal to love of country. The protection of home and kindred has from the dawn of history been the prime motive in all great world movements. Other causes may appear on the surface, but underlying these, in one form or another is this primal cause. Wars are waged and nations built up or overthrown because of the use or abuse of this power. Therefore the speaker must make a broad application of his particular argument in the closing paragraph.

With these fundamental suggestions in mind regarding the attitude which the conclusion should take, we will now turn to the form in which it is to be presented.

The conclusion must conform to the brief by summing up the main arguments and putting them clearly before the audience. This summary is necessary in order to make the proof clear and forcible. It should contain the main issues, and, whenever practicable, the subordinate reasons supporting them, in order that the chief points in the proof of the proposition may be recalled by the audience.

An example of the simple summary which is often quoted as a model, is the conclusion of the argument made by Daniel Webster in the case of _Ogden_ v. _Saunders_:—

“To recapitulate what has been said, we maintain, first, that the Constitution, by its grants to Congress and its prohibitions to the states, has sought to establish one uniform standard of value, or medium of payment. Second, that, by like means, it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts, when they are to be discharged without payment. Third, that these objects are connected, and that the first loses much of its importance, if the last, also, be not accomplished. Fourth, that, reading the grant to Congress and the prohibition on the states together, the inference is strong that the Constitution intended to confer an exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on Congress. Fifth, that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts, existing or in the future, in the same way that the other prohibition, in the same section, extends to all debts, existing or in the future. Sixthly, that, upon any other construction, one great political object of the Constitution will fail of its accomplishment.”

Again in the argument on the Presidential Protest he summarizes with effect and concludes:—

“—We have not sought this controversy; it has met us and been forced upon us. In my judgment, the law has been disregarded, and the Constitution transgressed; the fortress of liberty has been assaulted, and circumstances have placed the Senate in the breach; and, although we may perish in it, I know we shall not fly from it. But I am fearless of consequences. We shall hold on, Sir, and hold out, till the people themselves come to its defense. We shall raise the alarm, and maintain the post, till they whose right it is shall decide whether the Senate be a faction, wantonly resisting lawful power, or whether it be opposing, with firmness and patriotism, violations of liberty, and inroads upon the Constitution.”

In concluding this chapter on constructing the argument, let us again revert to the fact that the conclusion must be presented in such a way as to create a desire for action. The conclusion must “clinch” the argument. The time has come for the reader or hearer to act, or determine upon action. All the labor spent upon the introduction in arousing and fixing the attention, and all the labor spent upon the proof in maintaining the interest and building a firm basis for persuasion in rational conviction, is now lost unless the conclusion rises supreme above these and presents a culmination forcible and commanding. The conclusion should reap the harvest of persuasion sown throughout the argument. The emotions must be aroused as they have not been aroused in the presentation of the proof; they must be stimulated to the highest pitch. The conclusion must command the best powers of the speaker or writer. It must unite the audience, the subject, and the personality of him who presents the argument into one mighty current of thought and emotion which leads onward to action.