CHAPTER XV.

THE ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM.

_Classification._ The Ordovician strata were originally divided into series by Sedgwick as follows:--

Upper Bala, Middle Bala, Lower Bala, Arenig.

The Arenig series was at one time included by some writers with the Lower Bala under the name Llandeilo, but the word Llandeilo is now used in the sense of Sedgwick's Lower Bala. The Middle Bala is often spoken of as Caradoc, but the terms Bala and Caradoc are sometimes used interchangeably. As much confusion attaches to the use of the name Bala without explanation, the alternative titles have been largely adopted, and as the series are well defined there is no objection to their use, save that some expression is wanted equivalent to Upper Bala. The local term Ashgill shales was originally applied by Mr W. Talbot Aveline to beds of this age in Lakeland, and I have elsewhere suggested the use of this name for the whole series in that region; its use may well be extended to the series which is developed in many parts of Britain and the continent. The terms which will be used here, therefore, for the different series of the Ordovician system are the following:--

Ashgill Series (= Upper Bala) Caradoc " (= Middle " ) Llandeilo " (= Lower " ) Arenig "

Adopting a palæontological classification, we may speak of the Arenig and Llandeilo beds as those containing the _Asaphus_ fauna, whilst the Caradoc and Ashgill beds possess the _Trinucleus_ fauna; this is the terminology employed by Angelin for the equivalent strata of Sweden. It must be noted that here the names applied are not those of absolutely characteristic genera, as was the case with those adopted for naming the Cambrian faunas, for both _Asaphus_ and _Trinucleus_ range through the beds of the system; but whereas _Asaphus_ is most abundant in the beds of the two lower series, _Trinucleus_ occurs most frequently in those of the two upper series.

_Description of the strata._ The Ordovician rocks are found over large tracts in North and South Wales, in the counties on the Welsh border, in Lakeland and the outlying districts in the Southern Uplands of Scotland, and in detached areas in Ireland. There are three main types of deposit:--(i) the volcanic type, in which the ordinary sediments are associated with a large amount of contemporaneous volcanic matter, (ii) the black shale type, with a fauna consisting largely of graptolites, and (iii) the ordinary sedimentary type, in which we find alternations of grits, shales, and more or less impure limestones. We also find developments which are intermediate between any two or even all three of these types. The first type is characteristically developed in Caernarvonshire and Merionethshire, the second in the Dumfriesshire Uplands, and the third in the Girvan district of Ayrshire. The variation in the thickness of these three types of deposit is shown in the accompanying sections of the Caernarvon, Merioneth, Moffat and Girvan regions (see Fig. 17).

The North Welsh area gives two different developments of the Ordovician strata, one of which is much less volcanic than the other. In the Merioneth-Caernarvon area, two great masses of volcanic rock form the Aran and Arenig hills of Merioneth and the Snowdonian group of Caernarvon. The former are of Arenig, the latter of Caradoc age. The Merionethshire volcanic rocks consist of a great thickness of lavas and ashes of intermediate composition (anderites), associated with sandy and muddy sediments of no great vertical depth. The Llandeilo beds of this area are chiefly of the nature of black shales, while the Caradoc series is represented by volcanic lavas and ashes of acid composition (felsites) with a few thin interbedded sediments. A calcareous ash forming the summit of Snowdon is of importance as being on the same horizon as a limestone (the Bala limestone) found in the other North Welsh area. The Ashgill series is not represented in Snowdonia.

In the other North Welsh tract, around Bala Lake, the volcanic matter is much less conspicuous. The Arenig rocks are not seen nearer than the Arenig mountains which form the western boundary of this second tract. The Llandeilo beds consist of shaley deposits with a well-marked limestone, the Llandeilo limestone, in the centre, whilst the Caradoc beds consist chiefly of muddy sediments with some thin ashes and a limestone, the Bala limestone, at the top. The Ashgill series contains a basal limestone, the Rhiwlas limestone, succeeded by shales, and another thin limestone called the Hirnant limestone at the summit.

In South Wales the Arenig beds[74] are chiefly composed of slates, and are divisible into an upper and lower group. The total thickness is about 2000 feet. The Llandeilo beds contain three series:--

Upper Llandeilo Slates 1000 Llandeilo Limestone 200 Lower Llandeilo Slates 800.

[Footnote 74: A remarkable fauna, fairly well represented in Britain and exceedingly well developed on the continent, exists in the Uppermost Arenig and Lower Llandeilo beds, and it is well separated from the dominant Arenig fauna below and Llandeilo fauna above. To the beds which contain it Dr Hicks has given the name Llanvirn series.]

The Caradoc beds consist of black graptolitic shales of no great thickness, succeeded by an impure limestone on the horizon of the Bala limestone, while the Ashgill series like that of North Wales is separated into upper and lower limestone stages with an intervening stage composed of shales.

The deposits of the Welsh borderland are well developed in Shropshire, where there is practically a repetition of the Caernarvon-Merioneth development, with variations in detail. The Arenig and Caradoc volcanic rocks are not so thick as those of the Welsh district, but are nevertheless of considerable importance[75].

[Footnote 75: For information concerning these beds see Lapworth, C. and Watts, W. W., "The Geology of South Shropshire," _Proc. Geol. Assoc._, vol. XIII. p. 297.]

In the hilly region of Cumberland, Westmorland, and the adjoining parts of Yorkshire the succession differs from that of any of the Welsh regions, for the great period of volcanicity was during the formation of the Llandeilo rocks, and there were merely sporadic outbursts in Arenig and Caradoc times. The Arenig rocks consist of black shales with interstratified beds of coarser sediment, and some thin lavas and ashes of intermediate type. The Llandeilo series is represented by a very great thickness of volcanic rocks, varying in composition from basic to acid lavas, with associated pyroclastic rocks. The rocks of the Caradoc period largely consist of impure limestone with associated argillaceous rocks, and contemporaneous volcanic rocks of acid character. A marked unconformity is found locally in the centre of these. The Ashgill series consists of a basal limestone with shales above, and there is evidence that volcanic activity had not become extinct during the deposition of the rocks of this series.

Passing on to Scotland, the graptolitic type is admirably shown in the southern Uplands of the neighbourhood of Moffat, Dumfriesshire. The base of the Ordovician system has not been found, but the lowest series seems to be represented by shales with a graptolite possibly of Arenig age. Above this are volcanic beds succeeded by a group of black shales known as the Moffat shales. They are only about six hundred feet in thickness, and yet represent much of the Ordovician and part of the Silurian strata as developed elsewhere. The beds belonging to the Ordovician system are divided into two series, the Glenkiln shales below and the Hartfell shales above. The former consist of intensely black muds with few fossils save graptolites, and a deposit of chert at the base which is composed of radiolaria. The graptolites of the black shales are Upper Llandeilo forms, but the thin deposit of radiolarian chert may represent the rest of the Llandeilo period and part of the Arenig period also. The Hartfell shales are also usually black graptolite shales with lighter deposits nearly barren of organic remains; they represent the Caradoc and Ashgill series and pass conformably into the deposits of Silurian age[76]. The ordinary sedimentary type of Ordovician rocks is found in Ayrshire, though a few thin graptolitic seams are intercalated with the conglomerates and shelly sands, clays and limestones of the region, which is therefore peculiarly valuable as affording a means of comparison of the shelly type with the graptolitic type of Ordovician deposits. The Arenig series consists of black shales with graptolites, and these rocks are succeeded by a volcanic group which is probably of Llandeilo age. Above these volcanic beds, as in Dumfriesshire, we find three great divisions, two of which are of Ordovician, the third of Silurian age. The Ordovician divisions are respectively termed the Barr series, which is the equivalent of the Glenkiln shales, and the Ardmillan series above, equivalent to the Hartfell shales[77].

[Footnote 76: The Moffat beds are described in a paper by Prof. Lapworth entitled "The Moffat Series" in the _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, vol. XXXIV. p. 239. This paper, which is a masterpiece of detailed work, has furnished a clue to many problems. Few students will be able to follow the numerous details, and for general information concerning the beds they are recommended to read another paper by the same author "On the Ballantrae Rocks of South Scotland," _Geol. Mag._ Dec. III. vol. VI. p. 20. An account of the radiolarian cherts by Dr G. J. Hinde will be found in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_ for July, 1890, p. 40.]

[Footnote 77: See Lapworth, C., "The Girvan Succession," _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._, vol. XXXVIII. p. 537, and also the paper on the Ballantrae Rocks referred to in the preceding footnote. The latter paper should be carefully read by all students of the stratigraphy of the Lower Palæozoic Rocks.]

It is interesting to find that in the north of Ireland the rocks generally coincide in characters with those which are found along the same line of strike in Great Britain; thus, the Girvan type appears in Londonderry, Tyrone and Fermanagh, the Moffat type in County Down, and the Lake District type in the counties of Dublin and Kildare.

On the continent the volcanic material which plays so important a part in the constitution of the Ordovician accumulations of Britain is practically absent, and the strata are largely composed of accumulations of shale and limestone with occasional coarser deposits. In Scandinavia, the Arenig beds consist of limestones with a few shales, the Llandeilo deposits are largely calcareous, those of Caradoc age are partly calcareous and towards the top usually argillaceous, while the equivalents of the British Ashgill series are calcareous at the base and argillaceous at the summit. In Russia the calcareous matter preponderates over the argillaceous material.

Ordovician strata are also found in Belgium, France, Bohemia, and other places, and are largely composed of mechanical sediments of varying degrees of fineness mixed occasionally with some calcareous matter.

The variation in the characters of the Ordovician strata of Britain points to accumulation in a fairly deep sea, usually at some distance from the land, but dotted over with volcanoes which often rose above the water, causing the addition of much volcanic material to the ordinary sediments, and the existence of minor unconformities at different horizons along their flanks. As these unconformities are not always associated with volcanic material it is obvious that uplifts must have occurred occasionally during the deposition of the rocks; one important uplift is indicated by the occurrence of an unconformity in the Arenig rocks of Wales, while another is seen amongst the Caradoc rocks of the Welsh borders. On the whole, however, the period was one of slow subsidence, the deposition of material generally keeping pace with this subsidence, and accordingly there is a great uniformity of characters amongst the strata over wide areas. The probable continuation through the Ordovician period of the tract of land over the present site of the N. Atlantic ocean which as we have reason to suppose existed during Cambrian times, is indicated by similar changes of lithological character amongst the strata when traced from Britain eastward to Russia in both Cambrian and Ordovician times, and the continuance of these conditions over the American area is also indicated by study of the variations amongst the American Ordovician deposits.

_The Ordovician Faunas._ The Ordovician period has justly been termed the Period of Graptolites, which are the dominant forms of the time, and continue in abundance throughout the period. The abundance of graptolites in black shales associated with few other organisms has often been noted. It appears to be due to a large extent to the slow accumulation of the graptolitic deposits, allowing an abundance of these creatures to be showered upon the ocean floor, after death, for the evidence derived from detailed examination of their structure points to their existence as floating organisms. The tests of other creatures largely calcareous may well have been dissolved before reaching the sea-floor. In support of the view that these black shales are abysmal deposits may be noted the singular persistence of their lithological characters over wide areas, their replacement by much greater thicknesses of normal sediments along the ancient coast-lines, the frequent occurrence together of blind trilobites with those having abnormally large eyes when these creatures are associated with graptolites in the black shales, and lastly the interstratification of the black shales with radiolarian cherts similar to the modern abysmal radiolarian oozes. If this be so, we ought to find graptolites in marine deposits of all kinds, and indeed they are found there, though largely masked by the mass of sediment and the hosts of other included fossils, so that their discovery is rendered much more difficult than when they occur in the black shales,--a state of things which is familiar in the case of other pelagic organisms as _Globigerinæ_, radiolaria, and pteropods, whose tests abound in the abysmal deposits and are comparatively rare in those of terrigenous origin[78].

[Footnote 78: The importance of the graptolites as indices of the geological age will be seen by perusal of Prof. Lapworth's paper "On the Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, Ser. 5, vol. III. (1897).]

The characters of the Ordovician trilobites have already been noticed. These organisms are abundant, and occur in sediments of all kinds. Of other groups, the significance of the radiolaria has been referred to above. Corals occasionally form reef-like masses of limestone as in the limestones of the Caradoc epoch; the echinoderms are well represented, cystids being locally abundant; of the crustacea, many remains of tests of phyllocarida have been recorded; the brachiopods are very abundant, and of the mollusca, lamellibranchs, gastropods and cephalopods all occur with frequency though none of these groups is very prevalent. Certain forms have been referred to pteropods though with doubt, and other shells seem to be referable to the heteropods. The existence of vertebrates during Ordovician times is not, in the opinion of many geologists, proved, though remains of fishes have been recorded from the Ordovician strata of North America; but it is desirable that more evidence of this occurrence should be given[79].

[Footnote 79: Walcott, C. D., "Preliminary Notes on the Discovery of a Vertebrate Fauna in Silurian (Ordovician) Strata," _Bulletin Geol. Soc. America_, vol. III. p. 153.]

The distribution of the Ordovician faunas like that of the sediments points to the prevalence of open ocean conditions over wide areas during the period, with occasional approaches to land, which was often of a volcanic nature. Around this land clustered the ordinary invertebrates, building up coral-reefs and shell-banks, whilst away in the open oceans the graptolites floated, almost alone, and sank to the ocean floor after death.