part 1, p. 224; Tregear, _J. A. I._, vol. xix, p. 101.
Footnote 833:
Dumas, _Collection des Thèses_, p. 18.
Footnote 834:
Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, vol. i, p. 53. See also same author, _Ethnographische Beiträge_, p. 148.
Footnote 835:
Brainne, _Nouvelle-Calédonie_, p. 250.
Footnote 836:
Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 235.
Footnote 837:
Danks, _J. A. I._, vol. xviii, p. 288.
Footnote 838:
Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, p. 297.
Footnote 839:
Murray, _Papua_, p. 195.
Footnote 840:
Seligman, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxii, p. 302.
Footnote 841:
Epp, _Holländisch-Ostindien_, p. 393.
Footnote 842:
Kreutz, _Zeit. Soc. Wiss._, vol. ii, p. 201.
Footnote 843:
Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_, p. 141.
Footnote 844:
Ribbe, _Zwei Jahre_, p. 144.
Footnote 845:
Bernard, _Nouvelle-Calédonie_, p. 288. See also Glaumont, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. vii, p. 80; Lortsch, _Globus_, 1885, p. 107; and Moncelon, _Bull. Soc. Anth._, vol. ix, p. 361.
Footnote 846:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 176.
Footnote 847:
Thurmwald, _Forschungen_, p. 123.
Footnote 848:
Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_, p. 233.
Footnote 849:
Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, p. 100.
Footnote 850:
Jenks, _Ethnological Survey Publications_, vol. i, p. 61.
Footnote 851:
Hitchcock, _A. R. B. E._, 1890, p. 465.
Footnote 852:
Moerenhaut, _Voyages_, p. 62.
Footnote 853:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 247.
Footnote 854:
Tregear, loc. cit., p. 103.
Footnote 855:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 199.
Footnote 856:
Thomson, _Savage Island_, p. 141.
Footnote 857:
Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, vol. i, p. 54.
Footnote 858:
Krämer, _Samoa-Inseln_, vol. i, p. 38.
Footnote 859:
Seligman, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxii, p. 302. See also Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 86.
Footnote 860:
Schellong, _Zeit. für Eth._, vol. xxviii, p. 19.
Footnote 861:
Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 862:
Glaumont, loc. cit., p. 80.
Footnote 863:
Lambert, _Néo-Calédoniens_, p. 104.
Footnote 864:
Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 37.
Footnote 865:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 176.
Footnote 866:
Ibid., p. 178.
Footnote 867:
Seeman, _Viti_, p. 191.
Footnote 868:
Seligman, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxii, p. 303.
Footnote 869:
Krieger, _Neu-Guinea_, p. 165.
Footnote 870:
Pfeil, _Studien und Beobachtungen_, p. 31.
Footnote 871:
Angas, loc. cit., p. 314.
Footnote 872:
Dieffenbach, loc. cit., p. 33.
Footnote 873:
Brown, _New Zealand_, p. 40.
Footnote 874:
Haddon, _J. A. I._, vol. xix. p. 359.
Footnote 875:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. iii, p. 108.
Footnote 876:
Krämer, _Die Samoa-Inseln_, p. 335.
Footnote 877:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 83.
Footnote 878:
Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 194.
Footnote 879:
Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, vol. i, p. 54.
Footnote 880:
Melville, _Narrative_, p. 213.
Footnote 881:
Tautain, _L’Anthropologie_, vol. ix, p. 418.
Footnote 882:
Jenkins, _Voyage_, p. 404.
Footnote 883:
Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 80.
Footnote 884:
Stone, _New Guinea_, p. 93.
Footnote 885:
Krieger, loc. cit., pp. 165, 293, and 390. Neuhaus confirms this (_Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, vol. i, p. 150).
Footnote 886:
Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 37.
Footnote 887:
Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 32. See also Stephan and Graebner, _Neu-Mecklenberg_, p. 16.
Footnote 888:
Lortsch, loc. cit., p. 107; De Vaux, ‘Les Canaques’, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. ii, p. 330.
Footnote 889:
Blyth, _Glasgow Medical Journal_, vol. xxviii, p. 178.
Footnote 890:
Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. i, p. 106.
Footnote 891:
Brooke, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p. 335.
Footnote 892:
Wallace, _Malay Archipelago_, vol. i, p. 141.
Footnote 893:
Bock, _Head Hunters_, p. 211.
Footnote 894:
Hagen, _Unter den Papuas_, p. 27.
Footnote 895:
Marsden, _History of Sumatra_, p. 219.
Footnote 896:
Modigliani, _Viaggio_, p. 554.
Footnote 897:
Bickman, _Travels_, p. 278.
Footnote 898:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 40.
Footnote 899:
Batchelor, _Ainu_, p. 19.
Footnote 900:
Hitchcock, loc. cit., p. 465.
Footnote 901:
Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 12; Goldie, _Trans. and Proc. N. Z. Inst._, vol. xxxvii, p. 110; Tuke, loc. cit., p. 735.
Footnote 902:
Hunt, _J. A. I._, vol. xxviii, p. 9.
Footnote 903:
Haddon, _J. A. I._, vol. xix, p. 359.
Footnote 904:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 197.
Footnote 905:
Dumas, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 906:
Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 404; Krämer, loc. cit., p. 335; Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 211.
Footnote 907:
Krämer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 53; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 79.
Footnote 908:
Gardiner, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvii, p. 480.
Footnote 909:
Thomson, _Savage Island_, p. 141.
Footnote 910:
Pritchard, _Polynesian Reminiscences_, p. 423; Waterhouse, _King and People of Fiji_, p. 327; Thomson (_Fijians_, p. 180) thinks that it has been introduced lately. On the other hand Blyth says that it was formerly more prevalent than it is now (loc. cit., p. 181).
Footnote 911:
Hagen and Pineau, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. vii, p. 332.
Footnote 912:
Jamieson, _Aust. Med. Journ._, new series, vol. vii, p. 53.
Footnote 913:
Bernard, _Nouvelle-Calédonie_, p. 288; Rochas, _Nouvelle-Calédonie_, p. 200.
Footnote 914:
Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 229; Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144; Parkinson, _Int. Arch. Eth._, vol. xiii, p. 8; Elton, _J. A. I._, vol. xvii, p. 93.
Footnote 915:
Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 33; Danks, _J. A. I._, vol. xviii, p. 291; Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 313; Stephan and Graebner, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 916:
Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 194.
Footnote 917:
Riedel, _Rev. Col. Inter._, vol. ii, p. 71.
Footnote 918:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 165 (German New Guinea), p. 292 (British New Guinea), and p. 390 (Dutch New Guinea).
Footnote 919:
Ibid., p. 392.
Footnote 920:
Murray, _Papua_, p. 194.
Footnote 921:
Rosenberg, _Malayische Archipel_, p. 454.
Footnote 922:
Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 176.
Footnote 923:
Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 135.
Footnote 924:
Ibid., p. 568.
Footnote 925:
Modigliani, loc. cit., p. 554.
Footnote 926:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 201.
Footnote 927:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 60.
Footnote 928:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 280.
Footnote 929:
Angas, _Australia and New Zealand_, vol. i, p. 312.
Footnote 930:
Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui_, p. 338.
Footnote 931:
Tuke, loc. cit., p. 221.
Footnote 932:
Polack, _Manners and Customs_, vol. ii, p. 92. See also Meade, _Ride_, p. 163, and Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 16.
Footnote 933:
Brown, _New Zealand_, p. 41; Earle, _Narrative_, p. 243.
Footnote 934:
Haddon, _J. A. I._, vol. xix, p. 359; _Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 107.
Footnote 935:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 107.
Footnote 936:
Tuituila, _Journ. Pol. Soc._, vol. i, p. 267.
Footnote 937:
West, _Ten Years_, p. 270.
Footnote 938:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 79; Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 47.
Footnote 939:
Krämer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 53.
Footnote 940:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 141.
Footnote 941:
Rivers, _Melanesian Society_, vol. i, p. 313.
Footnote 942:
Thurmwald, _Zeit. für Eth._, vol. xlii, p. 111.
Footnote 943:
Gill, _Coral Islands_, vol. ii, p. 13.
Footnote 944:
Edgeworth David, _Funafuti_, p. 195.
Footnote 945:
Lutteroth, _Insel Tahiti_, p. 12.
Footnote 946:
Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, vol. i, pp. 249 ff.; same author, _Tour through Hawaii_, p. 325.
Footnote 947:
Kotzebue, _Voyage_, p. 211.
Footnote 948:
Ellis, _Narrative_, pp. 324 ff.; Angas, _Polynesia_, p. 144; Dumas, loc. cit., p. 19. The last-named author says that it was undoubtedly more prevalent before the arrival of Europeans than later.
Footnote 949:
Waterhouse, loc. cit., p. 328.
Footnote 950:
Glaumond, loc. cit., p. 79.
Footnote 951:
Bernard, loc. cit., p. 288.
Footnote 952:
Moncelin, loc. cit., p. 357.
Footnote 953:
Somerville, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiii, p. 4. According to Paton, ‘Infanticide is systematically practised’ (_New Hebrides_, p. 452).
Footnote 954:
Meinecke, _Z. G. E._, vol. ix, p. 340.
Footnote 955:
Codrington, _Melanesians_, p. 229.
Footnote 956:
Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 173.
Footnote 957:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 284.
Footnote 958:
Hale, _U.S. Exploring Expedition_, vol. vi, p. 15.
Footnote 959:
Elton, _J. A. I._, vol. xvii, p. 93.
Footnote 960:
Guppy, _Solomon Islands_, p. 42.
Footnote 961:
Elton, loc. cit., p. 93; Somerville, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvi, p. 393; Parkinson, loc. cit., p. 8; Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 962:
Verguet, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. iv, p. 206.
Footnote 963:
Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 36; Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 964:
Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 568.
Footnote 965:
Ibid., p. 705.
Footnote 966:
Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 176.
Footnote 967:
Murray, loc. cit., p. 194.
Footnote 968:
Erdweg, _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien_, vol. xxxii, p. 281.
Footnote 969:
Newton, _New Guinea_, p. 189.
Footnote 970:
St. John, _Forests of the Far East_, vol. i, p. 48; Brooke, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 337.
Footnote 971:
Ratzel, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 268; Romilly, _Western Pacific_, p. 68.
Footnote 972:
Moerenhaut, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 30, says that ‘Tous ces peuples étaient très fréquemment en guerre’.
Footnote 973:
Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 16; Tregear, _J. A. I._, vol. xix, p. 110.
Footnote 974:
Hunt, loc. cit., p. 10.
Footnote 975:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. iv, p. 6; vol. v, p. 229; and vol. vi, p. 189.
Footnote 976:
Ibid., vol. v, p. 298.
Footnote 977:
Ellis, _Narrative_, p. 4; Dumas, loc. cit., p. 19.
Footnote 978:
Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, p. 293; Lutteroth, loc. cit., p. 17.
Footnote 979:
Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, p. 294.
Footnote 980:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 189; Pritchard, loc. cit., p. 55; Angas, _Polynesia_, p. 270.
Footnote 981:
Brown, _Melanesians_, p. 173.
Footnote 982:
Gardiner, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvii, p. 470.
Footnote 983:
Ibid., p. 474.
Footnote 984:
Gill, _Coral Islands_, vol. ii, p. 12.
Footnote 985:
Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 407.
Footnote 986:
Kubary, _Journal des Museum Godeffroy_, vol. i, p. 62; Wilson, _Pelew Islands_, p. 334.
Footnote 987:
Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 671.
Footnote 988:
Williams, _Fiji_, p. 43.
Footnote 989:
Ibid., p. 203. He calculates the annual loss as from 1,500 to 2,000, and adds that this should be increased in order to include widows strangled on the death of their husbands (p. 53).
Footnote 990:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 86.
Footnote 991:
Hagen and Pineau, loc. cit., p. 336.
Footnote 992:
Lambert, loc. cit., pp. 173 ff.; Moncelon, loc. cit., p. 358; de Rochas, p. 304; Brainne, loc. cit., pp. 244 ff.
Footnote 993:
Guppy, loc. cit., p. 33; Verguet, loc. cit., p. 215.
Footnote 994:
Romilly, _Western Pacific_, p. 69.
Footnote 995:
Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 121.
Footnote 996:
Abel, _New Guinea_, pp. 129 ff.; Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 180; Reche, _Südsee-Expedition_, 1908–10, p. 289.
Footnote 997:
Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p. 117; Hose and McDougall, _Pagan Tribes_, pp. 158 ff.
Footnote 998:
Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p. 120.
Footnote 999:
Batchelor, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 1000:
Chalmers, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxiii, p. 123.
Footnote 1001:
Thomson, _British New Guinea_, p. 23.
Footnote 1002:
Woodford, _Head Hunters_, p. 154; Guppy, loc. cit., p. 16; Romilly, _Western Pacific_, p. 73.
Footnote 1003:
Hickson, _New Hebrides_, p. 275.
Footnote 1004:
Hose and McDougall, loc. cit., p. 187.
Footnote 1005:
Ibid., p. 187.
Footnote 1006:
Gomes, _Sea Dyaks_, p. 5.
Footnote 1007:
Brooke, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121; Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. ii, p. 143.
Footnote 1008:
Brooke, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121; St. John, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 68.
Footnote 1009:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 172.
Footnote 1010:
Ibid., p. 182.
Footnote 1011:
Romilly, _From my Verandah_, p. 52.
Footnote 1012:
Von der Sande, _Nova Guinea_, vol. iii, p. 270. Neuhaus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 131, attributes considerable importance to this factor.
Footnote 1013:
It is again noticeable that in the accounts of the older observers the general good health of these races is remarked upon. See, for instance, Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 129 (for the Sandwich Islands) and p. 170 (for Radeck); Cheyne, _Western Pacific Ocean_, p. 9 (for Island of Pines).
Footnote 1014:
Newton, loc. cit., p. 189. For New Ireland see Stephan and Graebner, loc. cit., p. 18, where the high child mortality is attributed to exposure.
Footnote 1015:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 202.
Footnote 1016:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 135.
Footnote 1017:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 61. For the whole question of child mortality among primitive races see Gerland, _Über das Aussterben der Naturvölker_, p. 24 to p. 39.
Footnote 1018:
Bogoras, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, p. 690.
Footnote 1019:
Jochelson, ibid., vol. ix, p. 110.
Footnote 1020:
Ibid., vol. vi, p. 413.
Footnote 1021:
Ibid., vol. ix, p. 104.
Footnote 1022:
Sumner, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxi, p. 79.
Footnote 1023:
For instance, by Sumner, loc. cit., p. 79, for the Yakuts; by Jackson, _Great Frozen Land_, p. 82, for the Samoyeds; and by Georgi, _Bemerkungen_, vol. i, p. 265, for the Tunguses.
Footnote 1024:
Krasheninicoff, _History of Kamtchatka_, p. 216. De Lesseps (_Travels_, vol. i, p. 133) puts the average at four to five children. It may be noticed that according to Pallas (_Reise_, vol. iii, p. 77) the Samoyeds do not cohabit for two months after the birth of a child.
Footnote 1025:
Sograff, _Arch. für Anth._, vol. xiv, p. 293.
Footnote 1026:
Jochelson, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 414.
Footnote 1027:
Krasheninicoff, loc. cit., p. 217.
Footnote 1028:
Stellers, _Kamtchatka_, p. 349.
Footnote 1029:
Sarytschev, _Collection of Voyages_, vol. vi, p. 50; Bogoras, loc. cit., p. 513.
Footnote 1030:
Finsch, _Reise_, p. 538. See Georgi, loc. cit., p. 263, for the Tunguses and Bogoras, loc. cit., p. 33, for the Chuckee.
Footnote 1031:
See Finsch, loc. cit., p. 538, for the Ostyaks and Samoyeds; Jochelson, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 423, for the Koryak; and Sumner, loc. cit., p. 79, for the Yakuts.
Footnote 1032:
On this subject see Cannan, _Theories of Production and Distribution_, ch. v. Professor Cannan’s work has been used in this and in the two following sections.
Footnote 1033:
Nicholson, _Political Economy_, vol. i, p. 182, note.
Footnote 1034:
Cannan, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 1035:
Cannan, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 1036:
Nicholson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 163.
Footnote 1037:
Cannan, _Wealth_, p. 68. This is frequently misunderstood. Thus we read that ‘occasionally, from accidental circumstances, England was for a short time under-populated, and these were the periods when ... the labourer was well off’ (Inge, loc. cit., p. 90). The evidence alluded to would tend to show that there was previously a condition of over-population. In any case a people as a whole is not better off when under-population arises.
Footnote 1038:
Cannan, _Theories of Production and Distribution_, p. 181.
Footnote 1039:
See Leroy-Beaulieu, _Question de la Population_, ch. iii.
Footnote 1040:
Quoted by Nicholson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 180.
Footnote 1041:
Ling Roth, _Tasmania_, p. 116.
Footnote 1042:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 83.
Footnote 1043:
Wheeler, _Tribe in Australia_, p. 35.
Footnote 1044:
Wheeler, loc. cit., p. 45. Malinowski (loc. cit., p. 152) comments on this tribal over-right, which, he says, is shadowy.
Footnote 1045:
See, for instance, Brown, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 144, for Western Australia; Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 7, for Central Australia; and Stanbridge, _Trans. Eth. Soc._, new series, vol. i, p. 286, for Victoria.
Footnote 1046:
Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 156.
Footnote 1047:
Brown, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 145. Spencer and Gillen describe the ownership by local groups of quarries where stone suitable for making instruments is found (_Native Tribes_, p. 590).
Footnote 1048:
Ibid., p. 146. See, too, Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes_, p. 27.
Footnote 1049:
Stanbridge, loc. cit., p. 286. See also Parker, _Aborigines_, p. 12.
Footnote 1050:
Brown, _Geog. Journ._, vol. i, p. 12.
Footnote 1051:
Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 297.
Footnote 1052:
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 145.
Footnote 1053:
Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, p. 147.
Footnote 1054:
See Grosse, _Die Formen der Familie_, p. 35.
Footnote 1055:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 35.
Footnote 1056:
Ibid., p. 86.
Footnote 1057:
Klutschak, loc. cit., p. 227.
Footnote 1058:
Rink, loc. cit., p. 31.
Footnote 1059:
‘Captain Cook found among the Ahts “very strict notions of their having a right to the exclusive property of everything that their country produces”, so that they claimed pay for even wood, water, and grass. The limits of their tribal property are very clearly defined, but individuals rarely claim any property in land’ (Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 191). See also Dellenbaugh, _North Americans_, pp. 410 ff.
Footnote 1060:
_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Land Tenure’.
Footnote 1061:
Harmon, loc. cit., p. 255.
Footnote 1062:
Hill Tout, _British North America_, p. 147. See also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 118.
Footnote 1063:
Ibid., p. 157.
Footnote 1064:
Ibid., p. 159.
Footnote 1065:
_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Property’. See Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 255, for a description of this among the Lillooet Indians; also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 230, and Niblack, loc. cit., pp. 298 and 337.
Footnote 1066:
Swanton, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. v, p. 71.
Footnote 1067:
Elliot, _Arctic Province_, p. 54.
Footnote 1068:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 167. Before leaving the Indians it is worth noticing that each family had, as a rule, its own store of food. Many different methods of storing food are known; the more migratory tribes of the Salish and the Tinneh stored food either in detached sheds elevated on posts several feet from the ground, or where the soil was unusually dry in well-like holes. See Hill Tout, _British North America_, p. 108.
Footnote 1069:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, pp. 475 ff. See also Seligman, loc. cit., p. 106.
Footnote 1070:
Cooper, loc. cit., p. 178.
Footnote 1071:
Hobhouse, Wheeler, and Ginsberg, _Institutions of the Simpler Peoples_, pp. 243 ff.
Footnote 1072:
_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Property’.
Footnote 1073:
Ibid., Article ‘Land Tenure’.
Footnote 1074:
Fletcher and La Flesche, 27th _A. R. B. E._, p. 269. Dorsey (loc. cit., p. 366) gives further details.
Footnote 1075:
Joyce, _Mexican Archaeology_, p. 116.
Footnote 1076:
Spix and Martius, vol. i, p. 83.
Footnote 1077:
Bartle Frere, _J. A. I._, vol. xii, p. 260.
Footnote 1078:
Ellis, _Ewe-Speaking People_, p. 217.
Footnote 1079:
Ibid., _Yoruba-Speaking People_, p. 188.
Footnote 1080:
Talbot, loc. cit., p. 262.
Footnote 1081:
Scott Elliot, _J. A. I._, vol. xxiii, p. 82.
Footnote 1082:
Tremearne, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, p. 187.
Footnote 1083:
Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 123.
Footnote 1084:
Ibid., p. 129.
Footnote 1085:
Torday and Joyce, _Ann. Mus. Congo Belge_, sér. 3, tome ii, p. 91.
Footnote 1086:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 2, p. 465.
Footnote 1087:
Hobley, _Akamba_, pp. 82 and 136 ff.
Footnote 1088:
Halkin, loc. cit., p. 493.
Footnote 1089:
Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 15.
Footnote 1090:
Routledge, _Prehistoric People_, p. 39.
Footnote 1091:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 179.
Footnote 1092:
Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 471.
Footnote 1093:
Junod, _South African Tribe_, vol. i, p. 307.
Footnote 1094:
Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 230.
Footnote 1095:
Conder, _J. A. I._, vol. xvi, p. 86.
Footnote 1096:
Hahn, _Z. G. E._, vol. iii, p. 255. For Madagascar, where conditions are much the same, see Parker, _J. A. I._, vol. xii.
Footnote 1097:
Wilson, _Pelew Islands_, p. 297.
Footnote 1098:
Tregear, loc. cit., p. 106.
Footnote 1099:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 419.
Footnote 1100:
Thomson, _British New Guinea_, p. 194.
Footnote 1101:
Müller, _Unter Tungusen_, p. 46.
Footnote 1102:
Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 759.
Footnote 1103:
Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 765.
Footnote 1104:
Ibid., p. 767.
Footnote 1105:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 41. See also Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 48.
Footnote 1106:
Nansen, _Eskimo Life_, p. 113.
Footnote 1107:
See, for instance, Klutschak, pp. 231 ff., and Whymper, _Voyages et Aventures_, p. 346.
Footnote 1108:
Rink, loc. cit., p. 31.
Footnote 1109:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121.
Footnote 1110:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 256.
Footnote 1111:
MacGee, 17th _A. R. B. E._, p. 273.
Footnote 1112:
Hill Tout (_British North America_, p. 159) describes an exceptional case of a Salish tribe in which ‘even the food was held and the meals taken in common, the presiding elder or headsman calling a certain family each day to provide the meals for all the rest, every one taking it in turn to discharge this social duty’.
Footnote 1113:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 229.
Footnote 1114:
Angas, loc. cit., p. 373.
Footnote 1115:
Haseman, _Am. Anth._, vol. xiv, p. 338.
Footnote 1116:
Some authors have assumed without producing any evidence that these practices—especially infanticide—have increased, if they have not been initiated, after contact with Europeans. It is, therefore, of interest to note that according to Rivers there is definite genealogical evidence from Tikopia of the disappearance of infanticide (_Melanesian Society_, vol. i, p. 352).
Footnote 1117:
According to Neuhauss for instance, both abortion and infanticide were formerly prevalent in parts of New Guinea where they are now rare owing to missionary teaching. No accurate account has been given of these tribes in their former state, and thus quite possibly a modern observer might well merely record the practices as being ‘rare’—a statement which would be misleading for our present purpose but which is of the kind likely to be relied on by those who do not admit the wide prevalence of these customs (_Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, vol. i, p. 31).
Footnote 1118:
As will be pointed out later, this statement of Tacitus is undoubtedly incorrect.
Footnote 1119:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 252.
Footnote 1120:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 263.
Footnote 1121:
Taplin, loc. cit., p. 14.
Footnote 1122:
Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 748.
Footnote 1123:
Howitt, _Native Tribes_, p. 749.
Footnote 1124:
Bonney, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 125.
Footnote 1125:
Beveridge, loc. cit., p. 26.
Footnote 1126:
Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 181. See also Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 261.
Footnote 1127:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 608.
Footnote 1128:
Foelsche, loc. cit., p. 192.
Footnote 1129:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 264.
Footnote 1130:
Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. i, p. 76. In another work, however, the same author says that he often spoke to the natives on this subject, and is ‘sure that the idea of over-population never entered their heads’ (_Recollections_, p. 263). Smyth (loc. cit., vol. i, p. 52) thinks that there may be some fear of over-population.
Footnote 1131:
Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 1132:
Gason, loc. cit., p. 8.
Footnote 1133:
Foelsche, loc. cit., p. 192.
Footnote 1134:
Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 376.
Footnote 1135:
Mathew, _Two Representative Tribes_, p. 165.
Footnote 1136:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 1137:
Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 405.
Footnote 1138:
Edgeworth David, _Funafuti_, p. 195.
Footnote 1139:
Rivers, _Melanesian Society_, vol. i, p. 313.
Footnote 1140:
Neuhaus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 150.
Footnote 1141:
Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 404. See also Krämer, loc. cit., p. 335.
Footnote 1142:
Ellis, _Narrative_, p. 324.
Footnote 1143:
Ibid., p. 327.
Footnote 1144:
Tuituila, loc. cit., p. 267.
Footnote 1145:
Waterhouse, loc. cit., p. 327.
Footnote 1146:
Hunt, _J. A. I._, vol. xxviii, p. 9.
Footnote 1147:
Codrington, loc. cit., p. 229.
Footnote 1148:
Williamson, _Mafulu People_, p. 177.
Footnote 1149:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 198.
Footnote 1150:
Ibid., vol. vi, p. 107.
Footnote 1151:
Rengger, loc. cit., p. 329.
Footnote 1152:
Hawtrey, loc. cit., p. 295.
Footnote 1153:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. v, p. 272.
Footnote 1154:
Grinnell, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 1155:
Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 394.
Footnote 1156:
Ehrenreich, loc. cit., p. 27.
Footnote 1157:
Russell, 26th _A. R. B. E._, p. 186.
Footnote 1158:
Blyth, loc. cit., p. 181.
Footnote 1159:
Seeman, _Viti_, p. 191.
Footnote 1160:
Gutmann, loc. cit., p. 3.
Footnote 1161:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 165. See also Parkinson, loc. cit., p. 22.
Footnote 1162:
Kotzebue, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 173.
Footnote 1163:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 284.
Footnote 1164:
Seligman, _Melanesians_, p. 270.
Footnote 1165:
Turner, _Samoa_, p. 333. According to Paton, loc. cit., p. 452, infanticide was ‘systematically practised’.
Footnote 1166:
Danks, loc. cit., p. 291.
Footnote 1167:
Rivers, _Todas_, p. 401.
Footnote 1168:
Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 48.
Footnote 1169:
Curr, _Australian Race_, vol. i, p. 110; Dawson, loc. cit., p. 35; Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 291; Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 259; Lumholtz, _Among Cannibals_, p. 184.
Footnote 1170:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158; Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 579.
Footnote 1171:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158; Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 579; Klutschak, loc. cit., p. 233; Nansen, _Greenland_, vol. ii, p. 230; id., _Eskimo Life_, p. 139; Murdoch, 9th _A. R. B. E._, p. 104. ‘There is a superstition’, says Dall, speaking of the Eskimos of Alaska, ‘that a youth must not marry until he has killed a deer, otherwise he will have no children’ (loc. cit., p. 196).
Footnote 1172:
_Handbook of American Indians_, Article ‘Marriage’.
Footnote 1173:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 134. For the Kutchins see Richardson, _Arctic Searching Expedition_, vol. i, p. 407, and for the inhabitants of Cadiack, Lisiansky, _Voyage_, p. 198.
Footnote 1174:
Swanton, _Jesup North Pacific Expedition_, vol. v, p. 50.
Footnote 1175:
MacGee, 17th _A. R. B. E._, p. 280. For further details of marriage by service among the Indians see Carver, loc. cit., p. 373, and Domenech, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 300.
Footnote 1176:
Skeat and Blagden, _Malays_, vol. ii, p. 70.
Footnote 1177:
King and Fitzroy, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 182. See also Bridges, loc. cit., p. 201.
Footnote 1178:
See Carpenter, _Intermediate Types_, _passim_.
Footnote 1179:
Richardson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 383.
Footnote 1180:
Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 163.
Footnote 1181:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 321.
Footnote 1182:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 265.
Footnote 1183:
Ratzel, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 124. According to Man (loc. cit., p. 81) men among the Andamanese marry at from eighteen to twenty-three years of age; Portman (loc. cit., p. 369) says twenty-six. Deniker (_Rev. d’Eth._, p. 301) says that the Ghiliaks do not marry until between twenty and twenty-five years old. The Aetas of the province of Cagayan have to pass a bow and arrow shooting test before marriage (Blumentritt, _Z. G. E._, vol. xxvii, p. 65). The custom of wrestling for wives has been recorded for various races (Lubbock, _Primitive Man_, p. 106).
Footnote 1184:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 202.
Footnote 1185:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 68.
Footnote 1186:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 172.
Footnote 1187:
Ibid., p. 202.
Footnote 1188:
Rosset, _J. A. I._, vol. xvi, p. 168.
Footnote 1189:
Christian, _Geog. Journ._, vol. xiii, p. 114.
Footnote 1190:
Krieger, loc. cit., pp. 172, 297.
Footnote 1191:
Danks, loc. cit., p. 288.
Footnote 1192:
Marsden, _Sumatra_, pp. 218, 219; Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen_, p. 247.
Footnote 1193:
Reed, loc. cit., p. 56.
Footnote 1194:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 247.
Footnote 1195:
Ibid., p. 230.
Footnote 1196:
Hickson, loc. cit., p. 275 (of the New Hebrides).
Footnote 1197:
Bock, _Head Hunters_, p. 216.
Footnote 1198:
Junod, _South African Tribe_, p. 100.
Footnote 1199:
Ibid., p. 102.
Footnote 1200:
Ibid., p. 101.
Footnote 1201:
Ibid., p. 125.
Footnote 1202:
Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 220.
Footnote 1203:
Junod, _Ba-Ronga_, p. 30.
Footnote 1204:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 129.
Footnote 1205:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 128.
Footnote 1206:
Routledge, _Prehistoric People_, p. 124.
Footnote 1207:
Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 88. The price of course varies with varying economic conditions, as Dundas notes for the Wawanga (_J. A. I._, vol. xliii).
Footnote 1208:
Fabry, loc. cit., p. 221.
Footnote 1209:
Plas, loc. cit., pp. 215, 219.
Footnote 1210:
Dundas, _J. A. I._, vol. xliii, p. 516.
Footnote 1211:
Johnston, _Uganda_, vol. ii, p. 822.
Footnote 1212:
Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 440.
Footnote 1213:
Ibid., p. 441.
Footnote 1214:
Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 417.
Footnote 1215:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 417.
Footnote 1216:
Talbot, loc. cit., p. 105. It will also be remembered that contraceptive practices are of importance in Africa, and that there is evidence that in the neighbourhood of Port Herald a young couple must not have children until they have built a house for themselves. See p. 177.
Footnote 1217:
Carver, loc. cit., p. 373.
Footnote 1218:
Jones, _Ojebway Indians_, p. 79.
Footnote 1219:
Du Pratz, loc. cit., p. 199.
Footnote 1220:
Dorsey, loc. cit., p. 259.
Footnote 1221:
Bossu, _Voyages_, p. 247.
Footnote 1222:
Joyce, _Mexican Archaeology_, p. 162. See also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 251.
Footnote 1223:
Schomburgk, _Reisen_, vol. ii, p. 251.
Footnote 1224:
im Thurm, loc. cit., p. 221.
Footnote 1225:
Rivero and von Tschudi, _Peruvian Antiquities_, p. 185.
Footnote 1226:
Von Martius, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 109.
Footnote 1227:
Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 93.
Footnote 1228:
See Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Biology_, vol. ii, p. 515.
Footnote 1229:
Morgulis, _American Naturalist_, vol. xlvii, p. 477.
Footnote 1230:
Spencer and Gillen, _Native Tribes_, p. 44.
Footnote 1231:
Same authors, _Across Australia_, vol. i, p. 191.
Footnote 1232:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 197.
Footnote 1233:
Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 209.
Footnote 1234:
Curr, _Recollections_, p. 259.
Footnote 1235:
Semon, loc. cit., p. 217. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 122.
Footnote 1236:
Thomas, _Natives of Australia_, p. 88. See also Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 293.
Footnote 1237:
See, for instance, Palmer, _J. A. I._, vol. xiii, p. 281.
Footnote 1238:
Burchell, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 422.
Footnote 1239:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 91.
Footnote 1240:
Ibid., p. 180.
Footnote 1241:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 36. See also Moffat, loc. cit., p. 57, and Campbell, _Personal Narrative_, p. 88.
Footnote 1242:
Thomas (loc. cit., p. 117) speaks of storing up of food. The Kurnai do not store up food, but the Dieri, who are closely allied to them, do so on a small scale (Fison and Howitt, loc. cit., p. 108).
Footnote 1243:
The beginnings of this custom are found among the Fuegians. Darwin says that ‘when they find a stranded whale, they bury large portions in the sand, and during the often recurrent famines travel from great distances for the remnants of the half putrid mass’ (_Voyage_, vol. i, p. 327).
Footnote 1244:
Boas, 6th _A. R. B. E._, p. 427. See also Rink, loc. cit., p. 186.
Footnote 1245:
Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 134.
Footnote 1246:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 127. In the spring, when the winter stores are exhausted, they usually experience a lean season (ibid., p. 129).
Footnote 1247:
Swan, _North-west Coast_, p. 154.
Footnote 1248:
Le Jeune, _Jesuit Relations_, vol. vi, p. 229.
Footnote 1249:
Ibid., pp. 233, 277, and 285.
Footnote 1250:
Hardisty, loc. cit., p. 311. Other accounts describe lean periods among the northern tribes as fairly common, during which ‘they often subsist for a great length of time upon a very little food’ (Harmon, loc. cit., p. 284). See also Morgan, _Houses and House Life_, p. 56.
Footnote 1251:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 53.
Footnote 1252:
Ibid., p. 22.
Footnote 1253:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 366.
Footnote 1254:
Ibid.
Footnote 1255:
Cabeça de Vaca, p. 63.
Footnote 1256:
Similar evidence is forthcoming for many other races. For the Andamanese see Man, loc. cit., pp. 342 ff.; for the Payaguas, Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 142; for the Ghiliaks, Deniker, _Rev. d’Eth._, vol. ii, p. 295; and for the Fuegians, Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., pp. 122, 339.
Footnote 1257:
_Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. iv, p. 180.
Footnote 1258:
Ling Roth, _Sarawak_, vol. i, p. 422.
Footnote 1259:
Thomson, _Fijians_, p. 332.
Footnote 1260:
Ibid., p. 335.
Footnote 1261:
Roscoe, _Baganda_, p. 12.
Footnote 1262:
Ibid., p. 6.
Footnote 1263:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 252.
Footnote 1264:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 181.
Footnote 1265:
Tremearne, _J. A. I._, vol. xlii, p. 180.
Footnote 1266:
Gaud, loc. cit., p. 21.
Footnote 1267:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 124.
Footnote 1268:
im Thurm, loc. cit., p. 253.
Footnote 1269:
Forbes, _Timor Laut_, p. 9.
Footnote 1270:
Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 129.
Footnote 1271:
Ibid., p. 170.
Footnote 1272:
Routledge, _Prehistoric People_, p. 19.
Footnote 1273:
Anderson, _Lake Ngami_, p. 49.
Footnote 1274:
Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 175. See also Ellenberger, loc. cit., p. 295.
Footnote 1275:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 228.
Footnote 1276:
Heriot, loc. cit., p. 350.
Footnote 1277:
Du Pratz, vol. ii, p. 161.
Footnote 1278:
Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 142.
Footnote 1279:
Ibid., p. 107.
Footnote 1280:
Ibid., p. 8.
Footnote 1281:
Wallace, _Narrative_, p. 478.
Footnote 1282:
Humboldt, _Personal Narrative_, vol. iii, p. 233.
Footnote 1283:
Spix and Martius, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249.
Footnote 1284:
There is evidence of an Australian tribe asking for an extension of territory. So rare, however, is evidence of this kind that it only serves to emphasize that the strict maintenance of territories was the normal condition.
Footnote 1285:
Knibbs, _Census of Australia_, Appendix A, vol. i, p. 31.
Footnote 1286:
There is some evidence that miscarriages are not uncommon among these races (for Australia see Grey, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249, and for the Loucheux Indians see Hardisty, loc. cit., p. 312). If this is so, it would appear also to be due to changed conditions to which primitive races had not learnt to adapt themselves—there being no advantages in their so doing.
Footnote 1287:
Hall,_ Ancient History of the Near East_, p. 110. So, too, Memphis was apparently a very cramped city.
Footnote 1288:
Rogers, _Six Centuries_, vol. i, p. 336.
Footnote 1289:
On this subject see Hirsch, _Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology_; Hecker, _Epidemics of the Middle Ages_; Clemow, _Geography of Disease_.
Footnote 1290:
The famous ‘plague’ of Athens, 430 to 428 B. C., was not plague in the technical sense; it was probably typhoid or small-pox.
Footnote 1291:
Macdonell, _Biometrika_, vol. ix, p. 369.
Footnote 1292:
Rogers, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 118.
Footnote 1293:
Ibid., p. 336.
Footnote 1294:
Theilhaber, _Das sterile Berlin_, p. 27.
Footnote 1295:
Henderson, _Mortality Laws and Statistics_, p. 3.
Footnote 1296:
Ibid., pp. 4, 110.
Footnote 1297:
_Annual Report of the Registrar-General for 1917._
Footnote 1298:
Rogers, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 332.
Footnote 1299:
Niebuhr, _Lectures in Ancient History_, vol. ii, p. 234.
Footnote 1300:
Hecker, loc. cit., p. 30. The proportion of the population which perished is often said to have been greater. Rogers (loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 223) puts it at one-third of the population of England.
Footnote 1301:
Vambéry, _Travels_, p. 313.
Footnote 1302:
Hodson, _Naga Tribes_, p. 113.
Footnote 1303:
Crooke, _Northern India_, p. 41.
Footnote 1304:
Ibid., p. 47.
Footnote 1305:
Thus in irrigated countries, if the system of irrigation is allowed to fall into decay or if it is damaged directly or indirectly by war, famine may result. See Creswell, _Man_, vol. xv, p. 68.
Footnote 1306:
Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 248.
Footnote 1307:
Wattal, _Population Problem_, p. 20.
Footnote 1308:
Ibid., p. 21.
Footnote 1309:
Balls, _Egypt_, p. 224. For Chinese Tibet see Wilson, _Abode of Snow_, p. 193.
Footnote 1310:
See Rubin, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxiii, p. 610.
Footnote 1311:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 20.
Footnote 1312:
Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 403. See on this subject Schömann, _Griechische Alterthümer_, vol. i, p. 271, and Plutarch, _Lycurgus_, p. 15.
Footnote 1313:
Macdonell, loc. cit., p. 369.
Footnote 1314:
Müller, _Das Sexuelle Leben_, p. 7.
Footnote 1315:
Ibid., p. 14.
Footnote 1316:
Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 407. In China there is a Golden Orchid Society, the girl members of which swear never to marry (Giles, _China_, p. 69).
Footnote 1317:
Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, p. 269.
Footnote 1318:
Polak, _Persien_, vol. i, p. 205.
Footnote 1319:
Fustel de Coulanges, _Cité antique_, p. 50.
Footnote 1320:
Doughty, _Travels_, vol. i, p. 321. See also Bertherand, _Médecine et Hygiène des Arabes_.
Footnote 1321:
Gardner, _Journ. Eth. Soc._, new series, vol. ii, p. 19.
Footnote 1322:
Ross, _Corea_, p. 313.
Footnote 1323:
Kerr, _Natives of India_, p. 202.
Footnote 1324:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 3.
Footnote 1325:
Westermarck, _Moral Ideals_, vol. ii, p. 400.
Footnote 1326:
Ibid., p. 400.
Footnote 1327:
Monier-Williams, _Buddhism_, pp. 363, 364.
Footnote 1328:
Dubois, _Hindu Manners_, p. 214.
Footnote 1329:
Gray, _China_, vol. i, p. 186. See also Douglas, _China_, p. 85, and Giles, _China_, p. 189.
Footnote 1330:
Leong and Tao, _Life in China_, p. 10.
Footnote 1331:
Crawford, _Journal_, vol. ii, p. 240.
Footnote 1332:
Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, p. 186.
Footnote 1333:
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 201.
Footnote 1334:
Hue, _Souvenirs_, vol. i, p. 297.
Footnote 1335:
Pallas, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.
Footnote 1336:
Crooke, _North-Western Provinces_, p. 228.
Footnote 1337:
Risley, _People of India_, p. 185.
Footnote 1338:
Leopold and Weise, _Sexual-Ordnung_, p. 347. In the Vedic Age, however, child marriages were apparently unknown (see Bennet, _Antiquities of India_, p. 114).
Footnote 1339:
Eram, _Accouchements en Orient_, p. 69.
Footnote 1340:
Wassilief, _Zentralblatt für Anthropologie_, vol. x.
Footnote 1341:
Mondière, _Mém. Soc. Anth._, vol. ii, p. 465.
Footnote 1342:
Rivers, _Todas_, p. 503.
Footnote 1343:
Lenormant, _Histoire ancienne_, vol. iii, p. 142.
Footnote 1344:
Doughty, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 237; Burckhardt, _Notes on the Bedouins_, p. 96.
Footnote 1345:
Koran, ch. ii.
Footnote 1346:
Faulds, _Nine Years_, p. 285. See also Warnick, _Archiv für Gynaekologie_, vol. x, p. 574. For China see Matignon, _Dix Ans_, p. 318.
Footnote 1347:
Polak, loc. cit., p. 216.
Footnote 1348:
Bock, _Temples and Elephants_, p. 260.
Footnote 1349:
Rigler, _Die Türkei_, vol. i, p. 212.
Footnote 1350:
Müller, _Das Sexuelle Leben_, p. 6.
Footnote 1351:
Ibid., p. 29.
Footnote 1352:
Ibid., p. 37.
Footnote 1353:
Gray, _China_, vol. i, p. 185.
Footnote 1354:
Smith, _Kinship_, p. 283.
Footnote 1355:
Rigler, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 212.
Footnote 1356:
It is possible that there are traces of this custom in Persia (see Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 216).
Footnote 1357:
Theilhaber, _Das sterile Berlin_, p. 10. See also Theilhaber, ‘Die Geburten-Beschränkung’, _Neue Generation_, 1913.
Footnote 1358:
Collineau, _Revue Mensuelle de l’ École d’ Anthropologie_, 1899.
Footnote 1359:
Webb, _Pathologia Indica_, p. 258.
Footnote 1360:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 1361:
Aristotle, _Politics_, ii. 9.
Footnote 1362:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 7.
Footnote 1363:
Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 21.
Footnote 1364:
Ibid., p. 21.
Footnote 1365:
Westermarck, _Moral Ideals_, vol. i, p. 415.
Footnote 1366:
Theilhaber, _Das sterile Berlin_, p. 11. See also von Siebold, _Versuch einer Geschichte der Geburtshilfe_.
Footnote 1367:
Eram, loc. cit., p. 45. It was forbidden by the Laws of Manu (viii. 37).
Footnote 1368:
Wilkins, _Hinduism_, p. 429. See also Shortt, _Transactions Obstetrical Society_, vol. ix; Webb, loc. cit., p. 259; and Jellinghaus, _Zeit. für Eth._, vol. iii, p. 365.
Footnote 1369:
Matignon, _Dix Ans au Pays du Dragon_, p. 318. See also the same author’s _La Superstition, le Crime et la Misère en Chine_, and Collineau, loc. cit., p. 352.
Footnote 1370:
Mondière, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 487.
Footnote 1371:
Warnick, loc. cit., p. 574. See also MacLennan’s quotations from Miss Bird, loc. cit., p. 105.
Footnote 1372:
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 217.
Footnote 1373:
Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 846.
Footnote 1374:
Rique, _Gaz. Méd._, vol. xviii, p. 161. For the Tartars see Niemojowski, _Siberian Pictures_, vol. i, p. 161.
Footnote 1375:
Rigler, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 206, and vol. ii, p. 229.
Footnote 1376:
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 218.
Footnote 1377:
Sutherland, _Moral Instinct_, vol. i, p. 139.
Footnote 1378:
Buckle, _Miscellaneous Works_, vol. ii, p. 240.
Footnote 1379:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 132.
Footnote 1380:
Glotz, _Études sociales_, p. 187.
Footnote 1381:
Ibid., p. 188.
Footnote 1382:
Ibid., p. 191. Possibly, however, there was no public ceremony unless the father had decided to keep the child.
Footnote 1383:
Ibid., p. 212.
Footnote 1384:
Ibid., p. 224.
Footnote 1385:
Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 26.
Footnote 1386:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 136.
Footnote 1387:
Ibid., p. 137.
Footnote 1388:
Smith, _Kinship_, p. 279. See also Doughty, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 239, and Wilken, _Das Matriarchat_, p. 53.
Footnote 1389:
Smith, _Kinship_, p. 129. For evidence of infanticide in Mingrelia see Chardin, _Travels_, p. 144. The Gagas put all children to death and stole others (Battel, _Strange Adventures_, p. 326).
Footnote 1390:
Norman, _Peoples and Politics_, p. 290.
Footnote 1391:
Gray, _China_, vol. ii, p. 50.
Footnote 1392:
Douglas, _China_, p. 106.
Footnote 1393:
Abeel, _Journal_, p. 108.
Footnote 1394:
Ibid., p. 109. Douglas, however, says that infanticide scarcely exists in Pekin (_Society in China_, p. 353).
Footnote 1395:
Moule, _New China_, p. 179.
Footnote 1396:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 142.
Footnote 1397:
Giles, _China_, p. 97.
Footnote 1398:
Leong and Tao, loc. cit., p. 91.
Footnote 1399:
Faulds, loc. cit., p. 285. For Tonquin see Richard, _History of Tonquin_, p. 757.
Footnote 1400:
Wilkins, _Hinduism_, p. 431.
Footnote 1401:
Risley, loc. cit., pp. 166 and 168; Dubois, _Hindu Manners_, vol. ii, p. 612; Crooke, loc. cit., p. 136; Browne, _Indian Infanticide_, p. 612; Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 431; Russell, _Central Provinces_, vol. iv, p. 419.
Footnote 1402:
Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 432.
Footnote 1403:
Godden, _J. A. I._, vol. xxvi, p. 179; Risley, loc. cit., p. 165.
Footnote 1404:
Hodson, _Man_, vol. xiv, p. 98.
Footnote 1405:
Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes_, p. 504.
Footnote 1406:
Macpherson, _Memorials of Service_, p. 132; Campbell, _Personal Narrative_, p. 139.
Footnote 1407:
Macpherson, _Religion of the Khonds_, p. 65.
Footnote 1408:
Rivers, _Todas_, p. 478.
Footnote 1409:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 144.
Footnote 1410:
Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 431.
Footnote 1411:
Dubois, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 612. Infanticide was sometimes committed by the Kandyans (Bailey, _Trans. Eth. Soc._, vol. ii, p. 296), by the Koulous (Ujfalvy, _Bull. Soc. Anth._, vol. v, p. 227), by the Belochis (Barton, _Sindh_, p. 244), and in Svanetia (Phillipps-Wolley, _Savage Svanetia_, vol. ii, p. 92).
Footnote 1412:
Stricker, _Arch. für Anth._, vol. v, p. 451. It was practised in the Vedic age (Kaegi, _Rigveda_, p. 16).
Footnote 1413:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 138. See Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, pp. 455 ff.
Footnote 1414:
Ibid., p. 138.
Footnote 1415:
Lubbock, _Prehistoric Times_, p. 176.
Footnote 1416:
Infanticide was practised by the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands (Ploss, _Das Kind_, vol. ii, p. 259). Dasent says of the Norsemen that it was the father’s right to rear his children or not at his will. ‘As soon as it was born the child was laid upon the bare ground; and until the father came and looked at it ... its fate hung in the balance’ (_Story of Burnt Njal_, vol. i, p. xxv).
Footnote 1417:
Gönezi, ‘Die auf die Geburt und das Säugen der Kinder bezughabenden Gebräuche’, _Zentralblatt für Anthropologie_, vol. xii.
Footnote 1418:
Tertullian, _First Book to His Wife_, p. 414.
Footnote 1419:
Augustine, _On the Good of Marriage_, p. 285.
Footnote 1420:
Lea, _Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol. i, p. 62.
Footnote 1421:
Ibid., pp. 260 and 301.
Footnote 1422:
Ibid., p. 105.
Footnote 1423:
Schönberg, _Volkswirtschaftslehre_, p. 868.
Footnote 1424:
Lea, loc. cit., p. 107.
Footnote 1425:
_Concilium Tridentinum_, Sessio 24, Can. 10. ‘Si quis dixerit statum coniugalem anteponendum esse statui virginitatis vel coelibatus, et non esse melius ac beatus manere in virginitate aut coelibatu, quam iungi matrimonio, anathema sit’ (quoted by Lea, loc. cit., vol. ii, p 204).
Footnote 1426:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 598.
Footnote 1427:
Ibid., p. 606.
Footnote 1428:
Ibid., p. 608.
Footnote 1429:
Ibid., p. 609.
Footnote 1430:
Westermarck, _Human Marriage_, p. 145.
Footnote 1431:
Popenoe and Johnson, _Applied Eugenics_, p. 136.
Footnote 1432:
See, for instance, Albertus Magnus, _De Secretis Mulierum_, p. 233.
Footnote 1433:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 614.
Footnote 1434:
_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 20.
Footnote 1435:
Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 21.
Footnote 1436:
_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 58. Leroy-Beaulieu gives a very high estimate of the number of abortions which occur yearly in France (_Question de la Population_, p. 330).
Footnote 1437:
Glotz, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 1438:
Lecky, _European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 27.
Footnote 1439:
The fact that penance was imposed upon the mother who killed her child by the Council of Mentz in 852 suggests that the practice was not uncommon at that time (Westermarck, _Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 411).
Footnote 1440:
See _The Declining Birth-rate_, pp. 58–62.
Footnote 1441:
Among these races the evolution of the capitalist system had begun and in Babylonia had gone a considerable distance (Sayce, _Babylonians and Assyrians_, p. 127).
Footnote 1442:
Myres, _Eug. Rev._, vol. vii, p. 30.
Footnote 1443:
There are often a limited number of families in each village (Barnett, _Antiquities of India_, p. 105).
Footnote 1444:
For particulars see Gray, _China_, vol. ii, p. 108.
Footnote 1445:
Leong and Tao, loc. cit., p. 10.
Footnote 1446:
Giles, loc. cit., p. 189.
Footnote 1447:
Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Early Marriage_, p. 36.
Footnote 1448:
For Tartar tribes see William de Rubruck, _Journey_, pp. 53 and 188.
Footnote 1449:
Dickson, _Climate and Weather_, p. 148. For a study of somewhat similar conditions in Australia see Taylor, _The Australian Environment_.
Footnote 1450:
Roy, _Mundas_, p. 346.
Footnote 1451:
Wattal, loc. cit., ch. v.
Footnote 1452:
Moule, _New China and Old_, p. 179. See also Bland, _Recent Events and Present Policies in China_.
Footnote 1453:
See p. 260.
Footnote 1454:
See Marshall, _Principles of Economics_, p. 186.
Footnote 1455:
Rogers, _Six Centuries_, vol. i, p. 47.
Footnote 1456:
Ibid., p. 45.
Footnote 1457:
Vinogradoff, _Villeinage in England_, p. 246.
Footnote 1458:
Pollard, _Factors in Modern History_, p. 135.
Footnote 1459:
Marshall, _Principles of Economics_, p. 186.
Footnote 1460:
Froude, _Henry VIII_, p. 3, note.
Footnote 1461:
Davies, _Life in an English Village_, p. 31.
Footnote 1462:
Rogers, _Six Centuries_, vol. i, p. 106.
Footnote 1463:
Tawney, _Agrarian Problem_, p. 105, note.
Footnote 1464:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 598.
Footnote 1465:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 597.
Footnote 1466:
_Report for Inquiry into the Administration and Practical Operation of the Poor Laws_, Appendix F, p. 283.
Footnote 1467:
Ibid., p. 520. For further information on this subject see the _Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_, Article ‘Eheschliessung’. The Danish Poor Law Act of 1891 prohibits the marriage of the poor under certain circumstances.
Footnote 1468:
Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce_, vol. i, p. 442.
Footnote 1469:
Pollard, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 1470:
_Two Centuries of Irish History_, edited by Bryce, p. 21. Sir Horace Plunkett estimates that Ireland can now support about 2,500,000 agriculturalists or 500,000 families (_Ireland in the New Century_, p. 30). The population in 1790 was estimated at over 4,000,000. In the sixteenth century it was probably less than 1,000,000.
Footnote 1471:
Quoted by J. A. Hobson in evidence before the National Birth-Rate Commission, _The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 285.
Footnote 1472:
Bowley, _Distribution of National Income_, p. 18.
Footnote 1473:
The decline in Austria dates from 1883, in Germany, Hungary, and Italy, from 1885, in Norway from 1900.
Footnote 1474:
Thus the mean age for marriage of all husbands in England only increased from 28·43 years in 1896 to 28·88 years in 1909, while the mean age for all wives only increased from 26·21 in 1896 to 26·69 in 1909.
Footnote 1475:
For evidence that the decrease in fertility is due to artificial restraint see Stevenson, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxxiii, p. 431. There are reasons for thinking that contraceptive methods play a smaller, and restraint from intercourse a larger, part than is generally supposed (see Dr. Greenwood’s remarks on the paper quoted above, p. 440, and also Dudfield, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxi, 1908, p. 25).
Footnote 1476:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 606.
Footnote 1477:
Hammond, _Village Labourer_, ch. vii.
Footnote 1478:
See Pigou, _Wealth and Welfare_, p. 28.
Footnote 1479:
Hobson, ‘Evidence before the National Birth-Rate Commission’, _The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 289.
Footnote 1480:
Myres, _Eugenics Review_, vol. vii, p. 21.
Footnote 1481:
Also abortion, as we have seen, is not uncommon.
Footnote 1482:
The excessive practice of infanticide in Tahiti and elsewhere in Oceania may be regarded as an example of selfish indulgence. See p. 190. So, too, the Gagas put all children to death and stole others (Battel, _Strange Adventures_, p. 326).
Footnote 1483:
Keynes, _Economic Consequences of the Peace_, p. 215.
Footnote 1484:
Ibid., loc. cit., p. 12.
Footnote 1485:
Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, p. 1.
Footnote 1486:
_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 43.
Footnote 1487:
Myres, _Eugenics Review_, vol. vii, p. 31. These authors are only repeating what has often been said in former times, as, for instance, by Bacon in the following passage: ‘Look when the world has fewest barbarous people but such as commonly will not marry, or generate, except they know means to live (as is almost everywhere at this day except Tartary) there is no danger of inundations of people. But when there be great shoals of people which go on to populate, without foreseeing means of life and sustentation, it is of necessity that once in an age or two they discharge a portion of their people upon other nations’ (_Essay on the Vicissitude of Things_).
Footnote 1488:
These remarks also apply to those cases in which countries at times appear to be empty. Attention is, for example, sometimes drawn to the fact that England appears to have been an ‘empty’ country in the Middle Ages. The emptiness is only apparent. Relative to the available skill and all other relevant circumstances England was fully populated in the Middle Ages; the tendency was rather towards over- than under-population.
Footnote 1489:
Except perhaps in the case of the so-called Irish migration to America after the famine in the middle of the last century. Without doubt, however, there was in this migration a large political element—the nature of which is referred to below. Further there were many peculiar features in the position, and the migration was scarcely a migration in the broad historical sense.
Footnote 1490:
Haddon, _Wanderings of Peoples_, p. 3.
Footnote 1491:
See especially his _Pulse of Asia_, and _Civilization and Climate_, ch. xi.
Footnote 1492:
See Gregory, _Geographical Journal_, vol. xliii.
Footnote 1493:
Peisker, _Cambridge Mediaeval History_, vol. i, p. 328.
Footnote 1494:
Frequently, no doubt, such driftings were directed towards regions previously uninhabited and uninhabitable.
Footnote 1495:
Hogarth, _Ancient East_, p. 78.
Footnote 1496:
Quoted by Mitchell, _Evolution and the War_, p. 3.
Footnote 1497:
It is only fair to say that at least one German author has recently demonstrated the falsity of this view (see Nicolai, _Biology of War_, p. 34).
Footnote 1498:
Mitchell, loc. cit., ch. i.
Footnote 1499:
Comte, _Philosophie positive_, vol. iv, p. 506.
Footnote 1500:
Nicolai, loc. cit., p. 34.
Footnote 1501:
Holland Rose, _Origins of the War_, p. 47.
Footnote 1502:
Evidence has lately been brought forward to show that not only is war a custom but also that it is a custom of relatively late origin (Perry, ‘Ethnological Study of Warfare’, _Mem. and Proc. Man. Lit. and Phil. Soc._, vol. lxi). It is suggested that it is bound up with organization under kings and chiefs, and that it was introduced at a more or less definite time by a certain race. The evidence adduced would seem not to be adequate. The theory belongs to a series of attempts to show that very many customs and social institutions now widespread evolved in some one centre and spread thence. Though Professor Elliot Smith and his school may with justice insist on the fact that the multiple origin of similar customs has been too lightly assumed, it is equally unreasonable to insist upon tracing all similar customs and institutions to the same source. Those who are acquainted with the numerous and wonderful examples of convergence in the animal kingdom—the independent evolution of tracheae in the Arachnids and in the Insects, to take only one example—will have little difficulty in accepting the view that, in response to similar environmental conditions, similar customs may from time to time have been independently evolved. Other authors have urged that the apparent absence of weapons among the cultural remains of early races is evidence that they did not practise warfare (Havelock Ellis, _Philosophy of Conflict_, p. 49). But when so much doubt surrounds the question as to how the most common implements were used, it is dangerous to attribute much weight to this argument.
Footnote 1503:
It has been remarked that those countries which began the war were on the whole the countries with the highest birth-rate. The conclusion has been drawn that pressure of population brings about war. On the same lines as above, this conclusion may be shown to be unacceptable.
Footnote 1504:
Voltaire, _Candide_—the opinion of the Anabaptist Jacques.
Footnote 1505:
As an example of this increase in skill it may be noted that between 1840 and 1895 the quantity of product of various crops in America per unit of labour increased fivefold (Quaintance, _American Economic Association Publications_, 3rd Series, vol. v, 1904, p. 21).
Footnote 1506:
Knibbs, _Scientia_, vol. xii, p. 495.
Footnote 1507:
Mr. J. A. Hobson’s opinion, which is in conformity with that of the great majority of economists, may be noted: ‘there is’, he says, ‘no evidence that the world’s population is outrunning the natural resources; but on the contrary the presumption is that for their fuller utilization a larger population is necessary and thereby could be maintained with a higher standard of living’ (_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 75).
Footnote 1508:
Bowley, _Division of the Product of Industry_, p. 49.
Footnote 1509:
Harrison, _Description of England_, Bk. II, ch. x, p. 215.
Footnote 1510:
Nicolai, loc. cit., p. 48.
Footnote 1511:
_Problems of Population and Parenthood_, p. 73. A French historian says that ‘la densité de la population fait la force des nations’ (de Morgan, _Premières Civilisations_, p. 111).
Footnote 1512:
Holdich, _Political Frontiers_, p. 256. It is interesting to note that the wheat-eating population of the world increased less rapidly in the twenty-five years preceding 1906 than the wheat area of the world. At the beginning of this period there were 283 people (more or less wheat-eaters) for every hundred acres of wheat, whereas in 1906 there were 264 such people for the same area (_Agricultural Statistics_, Cd. 3832, vol. xvi, part 4).
Footnote 1513:
Beveridge, _Unemployment_, ch. i.
Footnote 1514:
The average income per head in 1914 is given by Stamp as follows (_J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxxii, p. 491):
£ United States 72 United Kingdom 50 Germany 30 France 38 Italy 23 Austria-Hungary 21 Spain 11 Australia 54 Canada 40 Japan 6
The figures are only approximate. The most accurate—those for the United Kingdom and for Australia—are not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent than 10 per cent., while the least accurate—those for Japan—may be inaccurate to a greater extent than 40 per cent. Rowntree, commenting upon the low wages in Belgium as compared with England, attributes them, not to over-population, but to a low standard of education, low degree of efficiency and productivity, to the fact that only a small proportion of workers are engaged in the production of high-class goods, and to the feebleness of the trade unions (_Land and Labour_, pp. 75 ff.).
Footnote 1515:
Newsholme and Stevenson, loc. cit., p. 55.
Footnote 1516:
Leroy-Beaulieu, _Question de la Population_, p. 55.
Footnote 1517:
The high birth-rate in certain parts of Ireland—said to be due to the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in discouraging the use of contraceptive methods—may be leading to over-population.
Footnote 1518:
Thus Marro found that children of older parents were more melancholy than those of younger parents (_La Pubertà studiata nell’ uomo e nella donna_).
Footnote 1519:
_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 63.
Footnote 1520:
The arguments for and against are fully and fairly set out in _Problems of Population and Parenthood_, pp. 44–8.
Footnote 1521:
Personally I agree with the views of the Dean of St. Paul’s on this matter. Speaking of the use of these methods, ‘it seems’, he says, ‘a _pis aller_ which high-minded persons should avoid if they can practise self-restraint. Whatever injures the feeling of “sanctification and honour” with which St. Paul bids us regard these intimacies of life, whatever tends to profane or degrade the sacraments of wedded love, is so far an evil. But this is emphatically a matter in which every man and woman must judge for themselves, and must refrain from judging others’ (_Outspoken Essays_, p. 74).
Footnote 1522:
Heron, _Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs_, No. 1, 1906. See also Stevenson, loc. cit.
Footnote 1523:
_The Declining Birth-rate_, p. 9.
Footnote 1524:
It is also noticeable in India (Wattal, loc. cit., p. 24). It will be remembered that in Denmark in the latter part of the mediaeval period there was some slight tendency according to Rubin for marriage to be postponed among the very highest social class; among the independent class generally marriage in those days, however, not only took place earlier than now but earlier than in the lower grades of society.
Footnote 1525:
Among the industrial classes conception before marriage is not uncommon. It is said that many men are not desirous of legal marriage until it is probable that they will have children. This is not to be regarded as evidence of loose sexual morality so much as evidence of foresight and of thought for old age when, if they have children, they will be more or less secure against extreme poverty.
Footnote 1526:
Hill, _Am. Stat. Ass._, vol. xiii, p. 590. An allied problem is that connected with the proportion of various racial elements among the immigrants into a new country. Thus between 1900 and 1913 Great Britain contributed roughly one-third and the United States and continental Europe two-thirds of the immigrants into Canada.
Footnote 1527:
Tucker, _Progress of the U.S.A._, p. 98.
Footnote 1528:
Leroy-Beaulieu estimates that, if the degree of skill in production now found in Western Europe was extended throughout the world, the population economically desirable would be from two to three times that of the present population of the world (_Question de la Population_, p. 174).
Footnote 1529:
These experiments have been summarized by Jenkinson (_Experimental Embryology_, pp. 141 ff.).
Footnote 1530:
Jenkinson, loc. cit., p. 151.
Footnote 1531:
Ibid., p. 157.
Footnote 1532:
Klebs, ‘Influence of the Environment’, in _Darwinism and Modern Science_, p. 227.
Footnote 1533:
MacLeod, _Quantitative Method_, p. 12.
Footnote 1534:
Vernon, _Variation in Animals and Plants_, p. 312.
Footnote 1535:
Quoted from Henslow by Vernon, ibid.
Footnote 1536:
Thomson, _Animal Life_, p. 407.
Footnote 1537:
Morgan, _Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity_, p. 38.
Footnote 1538:
Stockard, _Journal of Experimental Zoology_, vol. vi, p. 334.
Footnote 1539:
Jenkinson, loc. cit., p. 132.
Footnote 1540:
Agar, _Phil. Trans._, Series B, vol. cciii, p. 319.
Footnote 1541:
Tower, _Investigation of Evolution_, pp. 168 ff.
Footnote 1542:
Morgan, loc. cit., p. 39.
Footnote 1543:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 219.
Footnote 1544:
Thomson, _Animal Life_, p. 383.
Footnote 1545:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 294.
Footnote 1546:
Thomson, _Animal Life_, p. 391. In the case of the Porto Santo rabbit examined by Darwin the change in colour was found to be due to the environment.
Footnote 1547:
Ibid., p. 383.
Footnote 1548:
Lock, _Recent Progress_, p. 317.
Footnote 1549:
Shinji, ‘Wing Development in Aphids’, _Biol. Bull._, vol. xxxv.
Footnote 1550:
Quoted by Vernon, loc. cit., p. 242.
Footnote 1551:
Gemmill, _Teratology of Fishes_, p. 44. The cyclopia found was attributed by Gemmill only partly to environmental causes.
Footnote 1552:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 213.
Footnote 1553:
Ibid., p. 215. Similarly the snail, _Helix aspersa_, has a variety (_tenuis_) with a thin shell which is found where calcareous material is scarce.
Footnote 1554:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 261.
Footnote 1555:
Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 33.
Footnote 1556:
Mitchell, loc. cit., p. 47.
Footnote 1557:
Hansen, ‘Increase in Stature’, p. 23, in _Problems in Eugenics_.
Footnote 1558:
Ewart, ‘The Influence of Parental Age on Offspring’, _Eugenics Review_, vol. iii.
Footnote 1559:
Boas, _Changes in Immigrants_, p. 5.
Footnote 1560:
Sergi, ‘Variation and Heredity’, p. 18 (in _Problems in Eugenics_). Few anthropologists, it may be added, accept Boas’s conclusions.
Footnote 1561:
See Ammon, _Natürliche Auslese beim Menschen_ and _Zur Anthropologie der Badener_.
Footnote 1562:
Levi, _Anthropometria Militare_.
Footnote 1563:
Huntington, _World Power and Evolution_, p. 173.
Footnote 1564:
Fishberg, _Mem. Am. Anth. Ass._, vol. i, 1905.
Footnote 1565:
Nystrom has elaborated a theory according to which the habits and customs of races profoundly affect the shape of the head, but it cannot be said that he brings forward any convincing evidence (‘Über die Formenveränderungen des menschlichen Schädels’, _Arch. für Anth._, Bd. 27).
Footnote 1566:
Boas, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 1567:
_System of Medicine_, edited by Allbutt and Rolleston, vol. ii, part ii, p. 2.
Footnote 1568:
See Kohlbrugge, ‘Influence of a Tropical Climate on Europeans’, _Eug. Rev._, vol. iii.
Footnote 1569:
Huntingdon, _Civilization and Climate_. See also the same author’s ‘Climate and Evolution of Civilization’, in _Evolution of the Earth and its Inhabitants_, edited by Lull.
Footnote 1570:
Thus Montesquieu remarked upon the fact that greatest vigour is found in the colder climates (_Esprit des Lois_, Part III, Bk. XIV, ch. ii).
Footnote 1571:
Gregory, _Geog. Journ._, vol. xliii. There have been many studies of the influence of climate upon temperament. See, for instance, Dexter, _Weather Influences_.
Footnote 1572:
Darwin, _Descent of Man_, p. 35.
Footnote 1573:
Acton and Harvey, ‘Increase in the Number of Erythrocytes’, _Biometrika_, vol. viii. See also the results of the Monte Rosa and Pike’s Peaks Expeditions, _Phil. Trans._, vols. cciii and ccvi.
Footnote 1574:
Barrington and Pearson, _Eug. Lab. Mem._, No. 5, 1909.
Footnote 1575:
The results of these investigations have been summed up by Miss Elderton in a pamphlet entitled _The Relative Strength of Nature and Nurture_.
Footnote 1576:
See, for instance, Bridges and Coles, ‘Relation of Intelligence to Social Status’, _Psychological Review_, vol. xxiv.
Footnote 1577:
Galton, _Inquiries into Human Faculty_, p. 236.
Footnote 1578:
McDougall, _Social Psychology_, p. 118.
Footnote 1579:
Here environment clearly means social or traditional environment.
Footnote 1580:
Leiper, ‘Some Inhabitants of Man’, p. 151 (in _Animal Life and Human Progress_, edited by Dendy).
Footnote 1581:
See Jones, _Malaria and Greek History_.
Footnote 1582:
See Fisher, ‘Genesis of Twins’, _Genetics_, vol. iv.
Footnote 1583:
Galton, _Inquiries into Human Faculty_, p. 219. Curiously enough there was no similarity to be detected in handwriting—an interesting commentary on the value to be attributed to deductions drawn from handwriting as to character.
Footnote 1584:
Galton, loc. cit,. p. 226.
Footnote 1585:
Ibid., p. 231.
Footnote 1586:
Ibid.
Footnote 1587:
Ibid., p. 232.
Footnote 1588:
Ibid., p. 233.
Footnote 1589:
Galton, _Inquiries into Human Faculty_, p. 233.
Footnote 1590:
Ibid., p. 235.
Footnote 1591:
Ibid., p. 237. The general results of Galton’s work have been confirmed in all important respects by Thorndike’s elaborate investigations (‘Measurements of Twins’ _Archives of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods_, vol. i, 1905).
Footnote 1592:
Ridgeway, _J. A. I._, vol. xl, p. 13.
Footnote 1593:
The ‘Ancestral Law of Heredity’, which attributes on the average half the germinal constitution to the parents, a quarter to the grandparents, an eighth to the great-grandparents, and so on, is not incompatible with Mendelian inheritance as a general statistical result. The conception of the nature of inheritance involved in this theory is, however, incompatible with the Mendelian conception of unit-characters, which conception, it may be said, is the only one which fits the facts.
Footnote 1594:
The fact that the germinal constitution of any one individual belonging to a species, in which biparental reproduction is taking place, differs almost always from that of any other member of the species is due on the Mendelian hypothesis to the chance mixture of factors in the zygote.
Footnote 1595:
Adami, ‘Inheritance and Disease’, p. 26 (in _A System of Medicine_, edited by Osler and McCrae).
Footnote 1596:
Adami, loc. cit., p. 26.
Footnote 1597:
Ibid.
Footnote 1598:
Quoted by Thomson, _Heredity_, p. 275.
Footnote 1599:
Tredgold found that 80 per cent. of the mentally deficient had a bad nervous inheritance (_Mental Deficiency_, p. 40).
Footnote 1600:
McDougall, _Social Psychology_, ch. iii.
Footnote 1601:
McDougall, _Social Psychology_, ch. iv.
Footnote 1602:
Ibid., ch. iii.
Footnote 1603:
Pearson, ‘Groundwork of Eugenics’, _Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series_, 1909, p. 25.
Footnote 1604:
Snow, _Studies in National Deterioration_, No. 7, p. 34. See also Beeton and Pearson, ‘Inheritance of the Duration of Life’, _Biometrika_, vol. i, 1901, and Elderton and Pearson, ‘Further Evidence of Natural Selection in Man’, _Biometrika_, vol. x, 1915.
Footnote 1605:
Pruner-Bey (‘Mémoire sur les Nègres’, _Mém. Soc. Anth._, vol. i, p. 334) has shown in detail how the peculiarities of negro structure are to be regarded as adaptations to the surrounding conditions.
Footnote 1606:
Keith, _Nature_, vol. civ, p. 302.
Footnote 1607:
Ibid., p. 303.
Footnote 1608:
Keith, _Nature_, vol. civ, p. 303.
Footnote 1609:
Ibid., p. 404.
Footnote 1610:
McGee, loc. cit., p. 157.
Footnote 1611:
For evidence that disease leads to a selective death-rate see Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., pp. 124 ff.
Footnote 1612:
See Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., ch. xi.
Footnote 1613:
There has been much discussion as to the effect upon the population of France owing to the Napoleonic wars. The facts have been summed up by Havelock Ellis (_Essays in War Time_, pp. 33 ff.), and it appears that without any question the average physical constitution of the French was lowered; most kinds of infirmities, for instance, became more frequent.
Footnote 1614:
Recent research bearing on this problem has been summed up by East and Jones in their book _Inbreeding and Outbreeding_.
Footnote 1615:
Dublin and Baker, _Amer. Stat. Soc._, vol. xvii, 1920. Nevertheless, as shown by an important memoir by Hrdlicka, a new variety is not being produced, at least with any rapidity, under the influence of the American environment. Hrdlicka studied representatives of the old white American stock, whose ancestors had been for four generations in the United States, and concluded that no new sub-type has yet emerged. In fact the faithful preservation of the traits of the original immigrants is the outstanding result of the study.
Footnote 1616:
An admirable summing up of what is known as to the effect of alcohol on the germinal constitution will be found in Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., ch. ii.
Footnote 1617:
Pearson, ‘Problem of Practical Eugenics’, _Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series_, No. 5.
Footnote 1618:
Greenwood and Yule, _J. R. S. S._, vol. lxxii, 1914. See Pearson’s reply ‘On the Handicapping of the First-born’, _Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series_, No. 10.
Footnote 1619:
Ridgeway, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 1620:
Punnett, _Mendelism_, p. 208.
Footnote 1621:
Thomas, _Natives of Australia_, p. 25.
Footnote 1622:
Smyth, _Aborigines_, vol. i, p. 22.
Footnote 1623:
Spiller, ‘Mentality of Australian Aborigines’, _Soc. Rev._, vol. vi.
Footnote 1624:
Semon, _Australian Bush_, p. 78.
Footnote 1625:
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 22
Footnote 1626:
Mathew, _Eaglehawk and Crow_, p. 78.
Footnote 1627:
Man, _J. A. I._, vol. xii, p. 95.
Footnote 1628:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 378.
Footnote 1629:
Theal, _Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People_, p. 264.
Footnote 1630:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 265.
Footnote 1631:
Weeks, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxix, p. 131.
Footnote 1632:
Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 408.
Footnote 1633:
Junod, _South African Tribe_, p. 100.
Footnote 1634:
Ellis, _Ewe-Speaking Peoples_, p. 9.
Footnote 1635:
Torday and Joyce, _J. A. I._, vol. xxxv, p. 268.
Footnote 1636:
Maugham, _Portuguese East Africa_, p. 268.
Footnote 1637:
Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_, p. 76.
Footnote 1638:
Bryant, _Eug. Rev._, vol. ix., pp. 47–9.
Footnote 1639:
Olivier, _White Capital and Coloured Labour_, p. 59.
Footnote 1640:
Strong, _Pedagogical Seminary_, vol. xx, p. 501.
Footnote 1641:
Strong, loc. cit., p. 503.
Footnote 1642:
Ibid., p. 501. With regard to the disabilities under which the Negro labours in America see Booker T. Washington, _Story of the Negro_, vol. ii, pp. 114 ff.
Footnote 1643:
Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., p. 288.
Footnote 1644:
Huntington, _Civilization and Climate_, p. 12.
Footnote 1645:
Huntington, loc. cit., p. 14.
Footnote 1646:
McDougall, _Social Psychology_, p. 284.
Footnote 1647:
Ibid., p. 286.
Footnote 1648:
See McDougall, _Psychology_, p. 171.
Footnote 1649:
Stout, _Manual of Psychology_, p. 597.
Footnote 1650:
Hobhouse, _Development and Purpose_, p. 91.
Footnote 1651:
Hobhouse, _Development and Purpose_, chs. vi, vii, viii, and ix.
Footnote 1652:
Ibid., p. 96.
Footnote 1653:
Frazer, _Golden Bough_, London, 1911, part i, vol. i, p. 175.
Footnote 1654:
Frazer, loc. cit., part i, vol. i, p. 53. Taboo, it may be observed, is merely a kind of negative magic.
Footnote 1655:
The beginning of writing—for instance the Maya script—dates from the second period.
Footnote 1656:
McDougall, _Social Psychology_, p. 111.
Footnote 1657:
See on this subject, Rivers, ‘Disappearance of Useful Arts’, _Festskrift tilleguad Edward Westermarck_, 1912.
Footnote 1658:
There is a tendency to exaggerate the importance of tradition among animals. Thus it has been said that nest building is ‘largely’ traditional among birds. But the Curator of Birds in the New York Zoological Park raised a number of wild birds from incubated eggs, and found that these birds, although they had never had parental care or example, nevertheless learnt to fly, to build nests, and to perform all these activities—though they were sometimes slower in so doing than they would otherwise have been—that are at times said to be ‘largely’ traditional (see Lull, _Organic Evolution_, p. 170).
Footnote 1659:
Joubert, _Pensées_, p. 217.
Footnote 1660:
Marshall, _Principles of Economics_, p. 160.
Footnote 1661:
See Cureau, loc. cit., p. 253.
Footnote 1662:
Statements such as the following are commonplaces of anthropological literature. ‘These [Brazilians] have found life too easy, as the latter [Australians] have found it too difficult’ (Herbertson, _Man and His Work_, p. 3).
Footnote 1663:
Quoted by Fisher, _Soc. Rev._, vol. i, p. 61.
Footnote 1664:
Rivers, ‘Contact of Peoples’, _Essays and Studies presented to W. Ridgeway_, p. 478.
Footnote 1665:
Boas, _J. A. I._, vol. xl, p. 536.
Footnote 1666:
Semple, _Geographic Environment_, p. 357.
Footnote 1667:
See Durkheim, _Travail Social_, chs. vi and vii.
Footnote 1668:
Sherring, _Hindu Castes and Tribes_, vol. iii, p. 218.
Footnote 1669:
Hobhouse, Wheeler, and Ginsberg, loc. cit., p. 254.
Footnote 1670:
According to Delvaille (_Histoire de l’Idée de Progrès_, p. 405) Terrasson, writing in the eighteenth century, was the first author to emphasize the importance of tradition in the modern sense—particularly in his work _La Philosophie applicable à tous les objets de la raison_.
Footnote 1671:
See _Am. Anth._, vol. xiv, 1912, for a symposium of the views of American authorities on this point.
Footnote 1672:
Payne, _History of the New World_, vol. i, p. 311.
Footnote 1673:
Payne, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 289.
Footnote 1674:
The single-humped Arabian camel has never been found wild, but it is said that the double-humped Bactrian camel has been found wild in Turkestan. See Flower and Lydekker, _Mammals_, p. 297.
Footnote 1675:
Wild oxen were abundant in Europe in the time of Julius Caesar, and of them the Chillingham herd may be a remnant. Horses were abundant in Europe in Neolithic times. But it is probable that both oxen and horses were first domesticated in Asia. The ovine group was originally situated in the mountain region of Central Asia, though _Ovis savigni_, apparently allied to the Argoli, has been found fossil in the Forest Bed of Norfolk (Flower and Lydekker, loc. cit., pp. 355, 357, 367, and 382).
Footnote 1676:
Johnston, _British Central Africa_, p. 429.
Footnote 1677:
Elliot Smith, _Presidential Address to the British Association_, Section H, 1912, p. 577.
Footnote 1678:
Rhys Davids, _Buddhism_, p. 40.
Footnote 1679:
Olivier, _White Capital and Coloured Labour_, p. 57.
Footnote 1680:
McDougall, _Group Mind_, p. 119.
Footnote 1681:
McDougall, _Group Mind_, p. 112.
Footnote 1682:
See McDougall, _Group Mind_, ch. xvii.
Footnote 1683:
Leroy-Beaulieu, _Israël chez les Nations_, p. 77.
Footnote 1684:
Pollard, _Factors in Modern History_, p. 15.
Footnote 1685:
Vacher de Lapouge, _Sélections sociales_, pp. 293 ff.
Footnote 1686:
For a discussion of this problem see Hoernes, _Naturund Urgeschichte des Menschen_, vol. i, pp. 119 ff.
Footnote 1687:
Smith, _Church and State in the Middle Ages_, p. 83.
Footnote 1688:
Where, as in America, different racial stocks exist, differential fertility assumes greater importance. See p. 320.
Footnote 1689:
McDougall, _Group Mind_, p. 260.
Footnote 1690:
McDougall, _Group Mind_, p. 247.
Footnote 1691:
Flinders Petrie, _Revolutions of Civilization_.
Footnote 1692:
Galton, _Eug. Rev._, vol. i, p. 75.
Footnote 1693:
Lee, _Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_, p. 28.
Footnote 1694:
A. E., _Imagination and Reveries_, p. 107.
Footnote 1695:
Marett, _Psychology and Folk-Lore_, p. 73.
Footnote 1696:
As, for instance, by Renan in the following passage which contains nevertheless an element of truth: ‘La guerre est, de la sorte, une des conditions du progrès, le coup de fouet qui empêche un pays de s’endormir, en forçant la médiocrité satisfaite d’elle-même à sortir de son apathie. L’homme n’est soutenu que par l’effort et la lutte.... Le jour où l’humanité deviendrait un grand empire romain pacifié et n’ayant plus d’ennemis extérieurs serait le jour où la moralité et l’intelligence courraient les plus grands dangers’ (_Réforme intellectuelle et morale_, p. 111).
Footnote 1697:
Wallas, _Great Society_, p. 80. ‘In a settled and traditional society custom is of such overwhelming weight that a law can only act in accordance with it; a sudden change in the machinery of government would break down of itself—nay, in such a society laws can hardly be passed save those that the development of tradition demands’ (Belloc, _Life of Danton_, p. 142).
Footnote 1698:
McDougall, _Group Mind_, p. 146.
Footnote 1699:
Bridges and Coles, _Psychological Review_, vol. xxiv, p. 29. These authors do not commit themselves to any view with regard to the interpretation of their results—a fact which commends the investigation to students of these matters as indicating that the investigation was not undertaken with any bias (a condition of things unfortunately not common in studies of this problem).
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. ● Enclosed bold or blackletter font in =equals=.