Part 27

ENVER PASHA, Turkish soldier and politician, born at Constantinople in 1879. He entered the Turkish army in 1896, and in 1905 took part in the Young Turk movement at Salonica. He joined the revolutionaries in 1908, was for a short time military attach['e] in Berlin, but in 1909 returned to Salonica, and assisted in the deposition of Sultan Abdul Hamid. He then took part in the Tripoli War and the second Balkan War, and recaptured Adrianople from the Bulgarians in July, 1913. After being Minister of War, Enver subsequently became one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress. A staunch pro-German, he was to a great extent responsible for Turkey's entry into the European War as an ally of Germany. After the armistice of 1918, Enver Pasha fled to the Caucasus, and was active in inciting his countrymen to resist the terms of the Peace Treaty of 1920.

ENVIRONMENT, in biology, the surroundings of an organism, including non-living factors, such as climate and weather; and also other organisms. Plants and animals are more or less adapted to their surroundings, a good example being the mutual adaptations of flowers and insects, but there has been much controversy as to the way in which such adaptations have come about. Among all but unicellular organisms any individual consists of (1) a general body (_soma_), by which the life of the individual is maintained, and (2) germ cells, capable of becoming fresh individuals, and thus providing for the continuance of the species. According to a school of thought founded by some of the pre-Darwinian evolutionists, notably Buffon, Lamarck, and Treviranus, modifications of the soma (acquired characters) of an individual, brought about by the action of the environment (e.g. thickening of parts of the skin as the result of constant pressure), or by use and disuse (e.g. increased size of muscles; diminished wings of poultry), can be inherited, leading to increasing alteration capable of ending in the production of new species. Most living biologists, however, hold with Weismann that only _germinal variations_, i.e. variations in the substances of the germ-cells, are heritable. Much further research is necessary before it is possible to pronounce with certainty on many of the complex details involved in these theories. As to the part played by the environment, cases are known where this acts directly on the germ-cells, so as to influence their variation. But these are among some of the lower animals, in which the eggs develop outside the body of the parent, and we know hardly anything about the action of the environment on germs that develop internally. It has been suggested that modifications of the soma undoubtedly brought about by the influence of the surroundings may react upon the germ-cells and cause these to vary, but of this no proof has so far been forthcoming. Even if we admit that modifications of the soma are not inherited, they may nevertheless play a part in evolution by aiding the development of germinal variations that take the same direction. The whole subject is one of more than academic interest, especially in regard to the further evolution of human beings. Comparatively rapid advance, either in desirable or undesirable directions, would be possible if modifications acquired by the soma of an individual were capable of being inherited. So far as we know at present, acquired improvements in physique and mentality of individuals are not inherited by their offspring, which seems rather disappointing, but, on the other hand, undesirable modifications, including those due to disease, appear to be in the same case, and there is little reason to think that the children of parents possessing undesirable acquired characters are unduly handicapped from the very start. We must, of course, exclude cases of antenatal infection by the microbes of certain infectious or contagious diseases to which one or both parents have fallen victims, and also those of direct poisoning of germ-cells as the result of alcoholism.

EN'VOY, a person deputed by a Government to negotiate a treaty,or transact other business, with a foreign Government. We usually apply the word to a public minister sent for one particular purpose; hence an _envoy_ is distinguished from an _ambassador_, and is of inferior rank.

ENZYMES. See _Fermentation_, _Physiological Chemistry_.

E'OCENE, in geology, a term applied to the lower division of the Tertiary strata, from Gr. [=e][=o]s, dawn, and _kainos_, recent, because remains of existing organic species first occur here. The Eocene beds are arranged in two groups, termed the Lower and Upper Eocene; the strata formerly called Upper Eocene being now known as Oligocene. They consist of marls, limestones, clays, and sandstones, and are found in the Isle of Wight and in the south-east of England and north-west of France, in Central Europe, Western Asia, Northern Africa, and the Atlantic coast of North America.

['E]ON DE BEAUMONT. See _D'['E]on de Beaumont_.

E'OS, among the ancient Greeks the goddess of the dawn. See _Aurora_.

E[:O]TV[:O]S (eut'veush), Baron Joseph, a Hungarian statesman and author, born 1813, died 1871. He completed his studies at the University of Pesth in 1831. He had already, before leaving the university, produced three dramas--_The Critics_, _The Wedding_, and _Revenge_--the last a tragedy, all of which were well received. He became a friend of Kossuth, and distinguished himself as a journalist and orator of the popular party. In 1848, after the revolution of 15th March, he was appointed Minister of Public Instruction, resigned the same year, but was again appointed Minister of Public Instruction in 1867, and filled this office until his death. Among his works are the novels: _The Carthusian_, _The Village Notary_ (translated into English), and _Hungary in 1514_--giving vivid pictures of Hungarian life in modern and more remote epochs.

EOZO'IC ROCKS, the name given to the pre-Cambrian rocks, from their containing the first or earliest traces of life in the stratified systems.

EOZO'ON, a supposed gigantic fossil foraminifer found in the limestone of the pre-Cambrian rocks of Canada, whence the name _Eozo[:o]n canadense_. The structure, however, which is recognized also in Bavaria and in County Galway, has proved to be due to a zonal development of serpentine during metamorphism of the ancient limestones concerned. A similar structure occurs in limestone associated with the volcanic focus of Vesuvius.

EP'ACRIS, a genus of gamopetalous Dicotyledons, the typical genus of the nat. ord. Epacridaceae, distinguished by having a coloured calyx with many bracts, a tubular corolla with smooth limb, stamens affixed to the corolla, and a five-valved many-seeded capsule. The species are shrubby plants, with axillary, white, red, or purple flowers, generally in leafy spikes. Among those cultivated in Britain we may mention _E. grandifl[=o]ra_, which has flowers nearly an inch in length, of a brilliant reddish purple at the base and pure white at the apex. The order Epacridaceae consists of plants allied to the heaths, chiefly natives of Australia. The fruit of some species is eaten under the name of Australian cranberry, and they are cultivated in greenhouses for their flowers.

EP'ACT (Gr. _epaktos_, added), in chronology, the excess of the solar month above the lunar synodical month, and of the solar year above the lunar year of twelve synodical months. The epacts then are _annual_ and _menstrual_ or _monthly_. Suppose the new moon to be on the 1st of January: the month of January containing 31 days, and the lunar month only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds; the difference, 1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, is the _menstrual epact_. The _annual epact_ is nearly 11 days; the solar year being 365 days, and the lunar year 354. The epacts were once of some importance in ecclesiastical chronology, being used for finding when Easter would fall.

EPAMINON'DAS, an ancient Greek statesman and general, who, for a short time, raised his country, Thebes, to the summit of power and prosperity. He was born about 418 B.C., and killed at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C. He took the leading part in the struggle during which Spartan supremacy in Greece was destroyed, and the supremacy of Thebes temporarily secured. Four times he successfully invaded the Peloponnesus at the head of the Thebans, but after his death Thebes soon sank to her former secondary condition. Throughout life Epaminondas was distinguished for the friendship subsisting between him and Pelopidas, with whom he served in the Spartan campaign, 385 B.C. His character is one of the finest recorded in Greek history. and his virtues have been praised by both Xenophon and Plutarch.

EPARCH (ep'[:a]rk), in Greece, the governor or prefect of a provincial division called an _eparchy_, a subdivision of a nomarchy or province of the kingdom. In Russia, an eparchy is the diocese or arch-diocese of a bishop or archbishop of the Greek Church.

EPAULEMENT (e-p[a:]l'ment: Fr. _['e]paule_, shoulder), in fortification, a term for the mass of earth or other material which protects the guns in a battery in front and on either flank.

EP'AULET, OR EP'AULETTE (Fr. _['e]paulette_, dim. of _['e]paule_, the shoulder), an ornamental shoulder-piece belonging to a military or other dress. Epaulettes were worn in the British army till 1855, and in the United States as late as 1872, and are still worn in the navy by all officers of and above the rank of lieutenant, and by some civil officers.

['E]P['E]E ([.e]-p[=a]), Charles Michel, Abb['e] de l', French philanthropist, born in 1712, died 1789. He had chosen the clerical profession, but had to leave the Church on account of Jansenist opinions. The great object of his life was the instruction of the deaf and dumb, upon whom he spent his whole income, besides what was contributed by benevolent patrons. In 1770 he founded at his own expense an institution for the deaf and dumb. He left several works on his method of instruction, one of these being _Institution des sourds et muets_ (1774).

['E]P['E]HY, a town of France, department of Somme, about 13 miles S.E. of Cambrai. It was the scene of fierce fighting during the European War, and was captured by the British in Sept., 1918.

EPEIRA (e-p[=i]'ra), a genus of spiders, comprising the largest and best-known British species. _E. diad[=e]ma_, the common garden spider, is a handsomely marked species, which constructs a beautifully symmetrical wheel-shaped web.

EPERIES (ep'er-y[=a]sh), a town of Czecho-Slovakia, formerly in Hungary, on the Tarcza, the seat of a Greek Catholic bishop. Pop. 16,323.

['E]PERNAY (ep-er-n[=a]; ancient SPARNACUM, and the Roman AQUAE PERENNES), a town of North-Eastern France, department of Marne, on the Marne, the central depot of the wine trade of Champagne. The vast wine-cellars of the town form a labyrinth of galleries cut in the tufa or calcareous soil of the district. ['E]pernay was occupied for a short time by the Germans at the beginning of the European War, and was one of the enemy's objectives in the second battle of the Marne (July, 1918). Pop. 21,811.

E'PHAH, or BATH, a Hebrew measure of capacity, containing, according to one estimate or calculation, 8.6696 gallons; according to another, only 4.4286 gallons.

EPHEDRA, the principal genus of the Gnetales family of Gymnosperms. The species are shrubby switch-plants, natives of the warm temperate zone, found especially on sandy soil. The ripe seeding cones have fleshy scales, and those of _E. distachya_ are eaten in South Russia.

EPHEM'ERA, the typical genus of the neuropterous insects constituting the family Ephemeridae, so named from the extreme shortness of their lives in the perfect state. They are known as _may-flies_ or _day-flies_, and are characterized by the slenderness of their bodies; the delicacy of their wings, which are erect and unequal, the anterior being much the larger; the rudimentary condition of the mouth; and the termination of the abdomen in three filiform appendages. In the state of larvae and pupae they are aquatic and exist for years. When ready for their final change, they creep out of the water, generally towards sunset of a fine summer evening, beginning to be seen generally in May. They shed their whole skin shortly after leaving the water, propagate their species, and die, taking no food in the perfect state. The may-fly is well known to anglers, who imitate it for bait.

EPHE'SIANS, THE EPISTLE TO THE, a canonical epistle addressed by the Apostle Paul to the Church which he had founded at Ephesus. It was written during his first captivity at Rome, immediately after he had written the _Epistle to the Colossians_ (A.D. 62); and was sent by the hands of Tychicus, who also bore the message to the Church at Colossae.

EPH'ESUS, an ancient Greek city of Lydia, in Asia Minor, one of the twelve Ionian cities, on the south side of the Caystrus, near its mouth. It was at one time the grand emporium of Western Asia, having a convenient and spacious harbour. The Apostle Paul visited Ephesus and established a Christian Church there, to which he dedicated one of his Epistles. It was famous for its temple of Artemis (Diana), called _Artemision_, the largest and most perfect model of Ionic architecture, and reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world. The first great temple, begun about 650 B.C. and finished after 120 years, was burnt by the notorious Herostratus in order to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. (the night of Alexander the Great's birth). A second and more magnificent was then erected, which was burned by the Goths in A.D. 262. Some interesting remains have been discovered by excavation since 1896. Several Church councils were held here, especially the Third Ecumenical Council of 431, at which Nestorius was condemned. The site of the city is now desolate; near it is a poor village, Aiasoluk.

EPH'OD, a species of vestment worn by the Jewish high-priest over the second tunic. It consisted of two main pieces, one covering the back, the other the breast and upper part of the body, fastened together on the shoulders by two onyx stones set in gold, on each of which were engraved the names of six tribes according to their order. A girdle or band, of one piece with the ephod, fastened it to the body. Just above the girdle, in the middle of the ephod, and joined to it by little gold chains, rested the square breastplate with the Urim and Thummim. The ephod was originally intended to be worn by the high-priest exclusively, but a similar vestment of an inferior material seems to have been in common use in later times among the ordinary priests.

EPH'ORS, or EPH'ORI (Gr. _ephoroi_, overseers), magistrates common to many Dorian communities of ancient Greece, of whom the most celebrated were the Ephori of Sparta. They were five in number, were elected annually, and both the judicial authority and the executive power were almost entirely in their hands. Their power became an intolerable burden, especially to the kings, and in 225 B.C. Cleomenes III murdered the whole college and abolished the office.

E'PHRAEM SYRUS, that is, 'Ephraim the Syrian', writer of the Syrian Church, born at Nisibis, in Mesopotamia, about A.D. 306, died at Edessa in 373 or 378. He wrote several commentaries on Scripture, numerous homilies, and other works (as well as hymns), which have come down to us partly in Syriac, partly in Greek, Latin, and Armenian translations. They were edited by Assemani at Rome between 1732 and 1746, and by Overbeck at Oxford in 1865.

E'PHRAIM, the younger son of Joseph, and the founder of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. When the Israelites left Egypt, the Ephraimites numbered 40,500, and their possessions in the very centre of Palestine included most of what was afterwards called Samaria. Ephraim is also a town mentioned in _John_, xi, 54, and to which Jesus retired after His raising of Lazarus, when the Jewish authorities manifested their hostility against Him.

EP'IC, a poem of the narrative kind, dealing with a series of events or actions of permanent interest. Some authorities restrict the term to narrative poems written in a lofty style and describing the exploits of heroes. Others widen the definition so as to include not only long narrative poems of romantic or supernatural adventure, but also those of an historical, legendary, mock-heroic, or humorous character. Epic poetry is distinguished from drama in so far as the author frequently speaks in his own person as narrator; and from lyrical poetry by making the predominant feature the narration of action rather than the expression of emotion. Among the more famous epics of the world's literature may be noted: Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German _Nibelungenlied_, the Anglo-Saxon poem of _Beowulf_, the French _Song of Roland_, Dante's _Divina Commedia_, Tasso's _Gerusalemme Liberata_, Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_, Milton's _Paradise Lost_, Spenser's _Faerie Queene_, Camoens' _Lusiads_ (Portuguese), and Firdusi's _Shah Namah_ (Persian). Hesiod's _Theogony_, the _Elder Edda_, the Finnish _Kalevala_, and the Indian _Mah[^a]bh[^a]rata_ may be described as collections of epic legends. The historical epic has an excellent representative in Barbour's _Bruce_; and specimens of the mock-heroic and humorous epic are found in _The Battle of the Frogs and Mice_, _Reynard the Fox_, Butler's _Hudibras_, and Pope's _Rape of the Lock_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Chassang and Marcou, _Les Chefs-d'oeuvre ['e]piques de tous les peuples_; W. M. Dixon, _English Epic and Heroic Poetry_; A. Lang, _Homer and the Epic_.

EPICHARMUS (ep-i-k[:a]r'mus), a Sicilian comic poet and philosopher of the Pythagorean school, born in the Island of Cos about 540 B.C., died 450 B.C. He removed to Syracuse, where at the court of Hieron he spent the remainder of his life. He is credited with the invention of written comedy, and Plato called him "a master of the comic type".

EPICTE'TUS, a Greek Stoic philosopher, born at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, about A.D. 60. He lived long at Rome, where, in his youth, he was a slave. Though nominally a Stoic, he was not interested in Stoicism as an intellectual system; he adopted its terminology and its moral doctrines, but in his discourses he appeared rather as a moral and religious teacher than as a philosopher. His doctrines approach more nearly to Christianity than those of any of the earlier Stoics, and although there is no trace in what is recorded of them of his having been directly acquainted with Christianity, it is at least probable that the ideas diffused by Christian teachers may have indirectly influenced them. The excellence of his system was universally acknowledged. When Domitian banished the philosophers from Rome (A.D. 94), Epictetus retired to Epirus, where he is supposed to have died. His disciple Arrian collected his opinions, which are preserved in two treatises called the _Discourses of Epictetus_, and the _Manual or Enchiridion_.

EPICU'RUS, a Greek philosopher, founder of the Epicurean school, was born in the Island of Samos 342 B.C., died at Athens 270 B.C. He settled at Athens 306 B.C., and purchased a garden in a favourable situation, where he established a philosophical school. Here he spent the remainder of his life, living in a simple manner and taking no part in public affairs. His pupils were numerous and enthusiastically devoted to him. His theory of the universe was based on the atomic theory of Democritus. The fundamental principle of his ethical system was that pleasure and pain are the chief good and evil, the attainment of the one and the avoidance of the other of which are to be regarded as the end of philosophy. The term 'Epicurean' has come to signify one who is indulging his sensual appetites without measure, but this is really due to a misapprehension of the meaning of the word pleasure as used by the philosopher. Epicurus himself was not an 'Epicurean' in this sense, for he endeavoured to give a moral tendency to this doctrine. He exalted the pure and noble enjoyments derived from virtue, to which he attributed an imperishable existence, as incalculably superior to the passing pleasures which disturb the peace of mind, the highest good, and are therefore detrimental to happiness. Peace of mind, based on meditation, he considered as the origin of all good. It is, however, easy to see that his use of the word 'pleasure' was calculated to produce the mischievous results with which Epicureanism has been charged. The philosophy of Epicurus has, therefore, been violently opposed and frequently misrepresented; but while it is not open to the charges of gross sensualism which have been brought against it, it cannot be considered as much better than a refinement of sensualism. In ancient times his philosophy appears to have been more popular in Greece than in Rome, although his disciples were numerous in both, and the Latin poem of Lucretius, _De Rerum Natura_, is a poetical exposition of his doctrines. Epicureanism was resuscitated in France by Pierre Gassendi, and its principles have been professed by De la Rochefoucauld, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Epicurus was a very voluminous writer, but few of his writings are extant, what we possess comprising only some fragments of a _Treatise on Nature_, two letters, and detached passages. Lucretius, Cicero, Pliny, and Diogenes Laertius are our chief authorities for his doctrines.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Lange, _History of Materialism_; W. Wallace, _Epicureanism_; Guyau, _La Morale d'Epicure_; Taylor, _Epicurus_; W. Pater, _Marius the Epicurean_.

EP'ICYCLE, a conception of the ancient astronomy used to explain the irregular, and at times retrograde, motions of the planets. Corresponding to each planet there was supposed to be a circle called a _deferent_, which had the earth as its centre. Round this circle a point was imagined to revolve with uniform motion. That point formed the centre of a second and smaller circle, called an epicycle, and the actual planet was supposed to revolve with uniform motion round the circumference of the epicycle.

EPICY'CLOID, in geometry, a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls on the convex side of another fixed curve. The curve generated by rolling on the concave side is called a 'hypocycloid'. If the point is not on the circumference, the generated curves are called 'trochoids'.

EPICYCLOI'DAL WHEEL, a wheel or ring fixed to a framework, toothed on its inner side, and having in gear with it another toothed wheel of half the diameter of the first, fitted so as to revolve about the centre of the latter. It is used for converting circular into alternate motion, or alternate into circular. While the revolution of the smaller wheel is taking place, any point whatever on its circumference will describe a straight line, or will pass and repass through a diameter of the circle, once during each revolution. In practice, a piston-rod or other reciprocating part may be attached to any point on the circumference of the smaller wheel.

EPIDAU'RUS, a town and seaport of ancient Greece, situated in Argolis, in the Peloponnesus, particularly celebrated for its magnificent temple of Aesculapius, which stood on an eminence not far from the town. It had also temples of Artemis, Dionysus, Aphrodite, and Hera, and a splendid theatre still in fair preservation. The site is now occupied by the village _Epidavro_, where a congress met in 1822 and promulgated the 'Constitution of Epidaurus'.