Part 25

In _etching_, the plate, which is highly polished and must be free from all scratches, is first prepared by spreading over it a thin layer of _ground_. The surface is then smoked, and the outline of the picture transferred to it by pressure from the paper on which it has been drawn in fine outlines by a black-lead pencil. The picture is then drawn on the ground with the etching-needle, which removes the ground in every form produced by it, and leaves the bright metal exposed. Sometimes, however, the drawing is made direct, without the use of tracing. A bank of wax is then put round the plate and diluted acid poured on it, which eats out the metal from the lines from which the ground has been removed, but leaves the rest of the plate untouched. (See also _Dry-point_.) In landscape engraving, as practised in England in the early nineteenth century, the plate is then gone over with the graver, the etched lines clearly defined, broken lines connected, new lines added, &c. Sometimes the plate is _rebitten_ more than once, those parts which are sufficiently bitten in the first treatment being _stopped_ with varnish, and only the selected parts exposed to after-biting. Finally the burnisher is brought into play alternately with the graver and point to give perfectness and finish. In engraving proper, the lines are first drawn on the metal with a fine point and then cut in by the graver, first making a fine line, and afterwards entering and re-entering till the desired width and depth of lines is attained. Much of the excellence of such engravings depends on the mode in which the lines are laid, their relative thickness, and the manner in which they cross each other. In this method of engraving etching is but little used, if at all, and then only for accessories and the less important parts.

_Soft-ground Etching._--The ground, made by mixing lard with common etching-ground, is laid on the plate and smoked as before, but its extreme softness renders it very liable to injury. The outline of the subject is drawn on a piece of paper larger than the plate. The paper is then damped, and laid gently over the ground, face upwards, and the margins folded over and pasted down on the back of the plate. When the paper is dry and tightly stretched, a bridge is laid across, and with a hardish pencil and firm pressure the drawing is completed in the usual manner. The pressure makes the ground adhere to the back of the paper at all parts touched by the pencil, and on the paper being lifted carefully off, these parts of the ground are lifted with it, and the corresponding parts of the plate thus left bare are exposed to the subsequent action of the acid. The granulated surface of the paper, causing similar granulations in the touches on the ground, gives the character of a chalk drawing. The biting-in is effected in the same manner as already described, and the subject may be finished by rebiting and dotting with the graver. See _Etching_.

_Stipple_, or _Chalk Engraving_, in its pure state, is exclusively composed of dots, made with a special form of graver, varying in size and form as the nature of the subject demands, but few stipple plates are now produced without a large admixture of line in all parts, flesh excepted. Etching is often used to put in the more important lines and tone masses.

The processes of _Aquatint_ and _Mezzotint_ will be found under their respective heads, the latter differing from all other styles of engraving in that the lights and gradations are scraped or burnished out of a plate prepared so that it would print quite dark all over, instead of the forms being corroded or cut into a plain surface.

The _Mixed Style_ is based on mezzotint, which, still forming the great mass of shading, is in this method combined with etching in the darker, and stipple in the more delicate parts. By this combination a plate will produce a larger number of good impressions than it would if it were done entirely in mezzotint.

_Engraving on Wood._--The wood best adapted for engraving is box. It is cut across the grain in thickness equal to the height of type, these slices being subjected to a lengthened process of seasoning, and then smoothed for use. Every wood engraving is the representative of a finished drawing previously made on the block, the unshaded parts being cut away, and the lines giving form, shading, texture, &c., left standing in relief by excavations of varied size and character, made between them by gravers of different forms. Drawings on wood are made either with black-lead pencil alone or with pencil and indian ink, the latter being employed for the broader and darker masses. It is now much the practice to photograph drawings made in black and white upon the wood instead of making the drawing on the wood block. When the drawing is put on the wood by washes or by photography, instead of being entirely done by pencil lines, the engraver has to devise the width and style of lines to be employed instead of cutting in facsimile, as is the case when the drawing is made entirely in lines. The tools required for wood engraving are similar but more numerous than those of the engraver on copper or steel. See also _Die-sinking; Gems_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Y. Ottley, _Early History of Engraving_; G. Duplessis, _History of Engraving in France_; P. G. Hamerton, _Graphic Arts_; F. Wedmore, _Fine Prints_; A. M. Hind, _A Short History of Engraving and Etching_; J. H. Slater, _Engravings and their Value_; H. C. Levis, _Engraving and Collecting of Prints: Bibliography_.

ENGROSSING, FORESTALLING, and REGRATING, terms formerly in use for the purchase of corn or other commodities in order to sell again at a higher price, or in order to raise the market price of the same. The modern equivalent is 'making a corner'. These practices were once regarded as criminal, and positive statutes against them were passed in England in 1266-7, in 1350-2, in 1552, in 1562, and in 1570. The offence of _engrossing_ was described by the statute of Edward III as the "getting into one's possession, or buying up, large quantities of corn, or other dead victuals, with intent to sell them again"; _forestalling_, as the "buying or contracting for any cattle, merchandise, or victual, coming in the way to the market, or dissuading persons from bringing their goods or provisions there, or persuading them to enhance the price when there"; and _regrating_, "the buying of corn or other dead victual in any market and selling it again in the same market, or within 4 miles of the place". By the statute of Edward VI the engrossing of corn, which included the buying of it in one market to sell it in another, was made punishable by imprisonment and pillory; and no one could carry corn from one part of the kingdom to another without a licence. All the positive statutes against these offences were repealed in 1772, but they were still found to be punishable by common law, and it was not till 1844 that they entirely ceased to rank among offences.

ENHARMON'IC, in music, is an epithet applied to intervals smaller than the regular divisions of the scale, i.e. less than semitones. Enharmonic intervals can be produced on stringed instruments, or on specially constructed fixed-tone instruments having more than twelve divisions in the octave.

ENKHUIZEN (engk'hoi-zn), a seaport of Holland, on a projection in the Zuider Zee, 29 miles north-east of Amsterdam. It had formerly a pop. of 40,000, but the silting up of the harbour has caused its decay, and its inhabitants number now about 7110.

ENLIST'MENT, the act of engaging oneself or another to perform any service. In general, the use of the word is confined to engagements for the public service, and more especially in the armed forces of the Crown. In earlier days enlistment of soldiers was either for an indefinite period, as, for instance, for a particular war or campaign, or for life. Up to the middle of the seventeenth century enlistments were made to serve the officer raising the force under a contract from the Crown; after this period all enlistments were to serve the king. In both cases they were for a particular regiment only. For the next hundred years troops continued to be raised both in peace and war on the contract system, which by now implied that the officer accepting the contract, in addition to having a considerable say in the matter of allotting commissions to his friends, received a lump sum to cover all expenses of recruiting, pay, and clothing, out of which he and his officers made what they could. The objections to such a system are palpable, and it was abolished in 1783, after which year all duties with regard to the enlistment of troops were placed in the hands of a Director of Recruiting and Organization. The contract system was last used in war as late as the fifties of the last century during the Crimean War. For some eighty years prior to 1847 the term of enlistment was ordinarily for life, but from that year onward to 1870 various systems of limited enlistment were in force. In 1870, with the idea of forming a reserve, the principle of short service was introduced by the Army Enlistment Act, and this principle has been continued by all succeeding legislation. The existing law as to enlistment is to be found in Part II of the Army Act, Sections 78 to 101; more detailed instructions are in the Recruiting Regulations. The Army Act, brought into force annually by the Army (Annual) Act, specifies the term of original enlistment to be twelve years, which may be either entirely in army (colour) service, or partly in colour service and partly in the reserve. In practice the normal terms are seven years' colour service and five years' reserve service for the infantry, with certain modifications in the case of other arms. Enlistment may be made for general service or for a particular corps, and in the latter case the recruit will be posted to that corps only, and will ordinarily spend his whole service in it. A man desiring to enlist should present himself at a recruiting office, where he will be given a notice setting forth the terms of service. If, after reading the conditions, he still desires to enlist, he will be directed to appear before a justice of the peace (a recruiting officer is ex officio a justice of the peace for this purpose) for attestation. Attestation consists in giving signed answers to certain questions contained in the Form of Attestation, and in taking the oath of allegiance. The completed form is then signed by the justice, and the man becomes a properly enlisted and attested soldier. The former practice of giving a shilling to every prospective recruit, and thereafter considering him for some purposes a soldier, is no longer recognized, and, at any time before signing the attestation paper, the man may decline to complete his bargain without rendering himself liable to any penalty. Should he, however, make a false answer to certain of the questions contained in his attestation paper, he is liable to punishment on conviction by court-martial.

ENNIS, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough) in Ireland, County Clare, on the Fergus, 19 miles north-west of Limerick. It is irregularly built, the streets being narrow and crooked. There are remains of a Franciscan abbey founded in 1240. Some linen and flannel are manufactured, and there is a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. 5472.

ENNISCOR'THY, a town in Ireland, County Wexford, on the River Slaney, 77 miles south of Dublin. An old castle erected by one of the early Norman conquerors is in the centre of the town. Vinegar Hill in the immediate vicinity was the scene of a skirmish in 1798, when the town was stormed and burned by the rebels. Pop. 5495.

ENNISKIL'LEN, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough), Ireland, County Fermanagh, 34 miles north-east of Sligo, on an island in the river which connects the upper and lower sections of Lough Erne, with suburbs on both sides of the adjoining mainland, with which it communicates by two bridges; a well-built, clean, thriving town. Pop. 4847.

EN'NIUS, Quintus, the father of Latin poetry, was born at Rudiae, in Calabria, in 239 B.C., and died in 170 B.C. Like our own early poet Gower, he was trilingual, speaking Greek, Oscan, and Latin. He was of good family, and claimed descent from the legendary kings of Calabria. Little is known of his life; he served in the Second Punic War, and held the rank of centurion in 204 B.C.; at a later date he went to Rome, supported himself by teaching, and was friendly with the greatest of his contemporaries. He died of gout in his seventieth year. Ennius was a man of great versatility. He held perhaps the foremost place among writers of tragedies at Rome. He wrote good comedies. He wrote satires, and prepared the way for Lucilius. He wrote didactic poetry, and prepared the way for Lucretius. Most important of all, he wrote epic poetry--the _Annales_--and prepared the way for Virgil. He was the first to transplant the hexameter into Italy. His predecessors wrote in a rough kind of verse scanned by accent rather than quantity, and known as 'Saturnian verse'. Ennius contemptuously called this "the verse of fauns and soothsayers", and introduced the strong-winged music of Homer into his verse. He also brought in the elegiac couplet, which was to attain perfection at the hands of Propertius and Ovid. He left a permanent impress on the language. He made a systematic study of orthography, and invented a system of shorthand. He was fond of philosophical speculations, and made the Romans acquainted with the rationalism of Euripides and Euhemerus. He was, therefore, a remarkably versatile and prolific writer. His translations from the Greek tragedians were of the greatest importance in the history of Roman drama. His chief fame, however, rests upon his _Annales_, a great epic in eighteen books. Like all of the works of Ennius, it only survives in fragments quoted by later writers. It was a great national epic, recording the history of the Roman state from the landing of Aeneas down to the poet's own time. The city itself--_urbs quam dicunt Romam_--may be said to have been the central figure of his poem, a nobler figure than the pious Aeneas. The verse of Ennius is sometimes crude and harsh, but it contains many fine lines and grand passages. Some of these lines are world-famous, like those on Fabius Maximus beginning with

Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem,

or the great line

Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque,

which sums up some of the qualities which placed Rome at the head of the civilized world. In a famous simile Quintilian (_Inst. Or._ x, 1, 88) compares Ennius to a sacred grove of ancient oaks, whose massive immemorial trunks are awe-inspiring rather than beautiful. In his own epitaph Ennius boasted that he still lived as he passed to and fro through the mouths of men (_volito vivu' per ora virum_). Though his works are lost, this is still true, for he inspired Virgil and influenced all Latin literature.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. Y. Sellar, _Roman Poets of the Republic_; L. M[:u]ller, _Quintus Ennius_; J. W. Duff, _A Literary History of Rome_.

ENNS, a river in Austria, which rises in the Alps of Salzburg, flows N., then E.N.E., then N.N.W., entering Upper Austria (Ober der Enns), which for 15 miles it separates from Lower Austria (Unter der Enns), and finally enters the Danube a little below the town of Enns (4438 inhabitants). Total course about 150 miles.

ENOCH ([=e]'nok), (1) the eldest son of Cain, who called the city which he built after his name (_Gen._ iv, 17). (2) One of the patriarchs, the father of Methuselah. He "walked with God; and he was not; for God took him" (_Gen._ v, 24) at the age of 365 years. The words quoted are generally understood to mean that Enoch did not die a natural death, but was removed as Elijah was.

ENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal book of an assumedly prophetical character, to which considerable importance has been attached, particularly on account of St. Jude quoting it in the 14th and 15th verses of his _Epistle_. It is referred to by many of the early Fathers; is of unknown authorship, but was probably written by a Palestinian Jew in Hebrew or Aramaic, was translated into Greek, and from the Greek the existing Ethiopic version was made in the first or second century B.C. Till the end of the eighteenth century it was known in Europe only by the references of early writers. On his return, Bruce, the African traveller, brought with him from Abyssinia two manuscripts containing the Ethiopic translation of it. In 1821 Archbishop Laurence published a translation of the work, and in 1838 the Ethiopic text followed. _The Book of Enoch_ has since been repeatedly published, translated, and criticized.

E'NOS, a seaport in Thrace, 38 miles N.W. of Gallipoli, on the Aegean Sea, in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. 6940.--The Gulf of Enos is 14 miles in length by about 5 miles in breadth.

ENSCHEDE (ens'_h_e-d[=a]), a town of Holland, province of Overijssel, near the Prussian frontier, the chief seat of cotton manufacture in Holland. It has increased rapidly in recent years. Pop. 41,600.

ENSENA'DA (in Sp., a creek or natural harbour), a seaport of the Argentine Republic, province of Buenos Ayres, the port of the town of La Plata, with which it is connected by rail and tramway, with recently constructed harbour works.--Another place of the same name is a rising port of Mexico, in the northern part of the peninsula of California on the Pacific, in the Bay of Todos los Santos, with gold- and copper-mines adjacent.

EN'SIGN, formerly, in the British army, the officer who carried the flag or colours of an infantry regiment; for this title, second lieutenant has been substituted since 1871. In naval language the ensign is the flag over the poop or stern which distinguishes the ships of different nations. In the Royal Navy of Britain it is a flag with a white field divided into quarters by the red cross of St. George, and having the union (or Union Jack, as it is commonly called) in the upper corner next the staff. A similar ensign with a red field is flown by the merchant service.

EN'SILAGE, in agriculture, a mode of storing green fodder or vegetables in receptacles called 'silos'. These are usually pits of quadrangular form, lined with wood, brick, concrete, or stone. The fodder is cut and mixed, placed in the silo, pressed down, and kept compressed by heavy weights placed on a movable wooden covering. It undergoes a slight fermentation, and attains a slightly acid taste and smell, which is particularly grateful to cattle. The modern system of ensilage dates from about 1875, but the practice was known to the ancient Romans, and the system has been common in Mexico for centuries. Such advantages are claimed for it, as that in a wet season grass can be made into ensilage instead of hay, and that there is little loss of nutritive elements, while it has great feeding powers. Successful experiments have shown that green fodder may be converted into ensilage without a pit by simply piling up and consolidating by pressure.

ENTAB'LATURE (Lat. _in_, and _tabula_, a tablet), in architecture, the horizontal, continuous work which rests upon a row of columns, and belongs especially to classical architecture. It consists of three principal divisions--the _architrave_ immediately above the abacus of the column, next the _frieze_, and then the _cornice_. In large buildings projections similar to and known also as entablatures are often carried round the whole edifice, or along one front of it.

ENTA'DA, a genus of leguminous plants, subord. Mimoseae, containing about a dozen species of climbing tropical shrubs, remarkable for the great size of their pods. _E. scandens_ has pods which measure from 6 to 8 feet in length. They are sometimes carried from America to the coasts of Europe by the Gulf Stream. The seeds have a hard, woody, and beautifully polished shell, and are often made into snuff-boxes, scent-bottles, and other small articles.

ENTAIL', in law, the settlement of an estate by which a freehold is limited to a person and the heirs of his body, with such particular restrictions as the donor may specify. Entailed estates are divided into _general_ and _special_, the former when the estate is given to the donee and the heirs of his body without exception, the latter when the estate is limited to certain heirs to the exclusion of others. By a Bill introduced into Parliament in 1920 it is proposed that a tenant in tail should have power of disposal by will.

EN'TASIS, in architecture, the delicate and almost imperceptible swelling of the lower part of the shaft of a column, to be found in almost all the Grecian examples, adopted to give a more pleasing effect to the eye.

ENTEL'LUS, an East Indian species of monkey, of the genus Semnopith[=e]cus (_S. entellus_). It has yellowish fur, with a face of a violet tinge, and a long and powerful tail, which, however, is not prehensile. It receives divine honours from the natives of India, by whom it is termed _Hanuman_. Costly temples are dedicated to these animals; hospitals are built for their reception, and large fortunes are bequeathed for their support. The entellus abounds in India; enters the houses and gardens of the natives, plunders them of fruit and eatables, and the visit is even considered an honour.

ENTENTE CORDIALE, a term applied in international politics to friendly relations existing between different countries and statesmen. It is not a formal alliance, but denotes the existing community of interests and friendly sentiments between two countries. The term has been especially applied to the friendly relations which existed between France and England ever since the reign of Edward VII down to the formal alliance concluded at the outbreak of the European War.

ENTERIC FEVER, or TYPHOID FEVER, is an acute infectious fever, characterized by much general disturbance, and giving rise to ulceration in the small intestine. The distinction between this fever and typhus fever was only established in the middle of last century. It is due to a bacillus, difficult to detect, but during an attack found in many of the internal organs as well as in the stools, urine, and blood of the affected person. Enteric fever occurs in all parts of the world, and in most countries it is endemic, with occasional outbursts of epidemic prevalence. In Great Britain it is most common in the autumn, but epidemics may appear at any season. The great majority of cases occur between ten and twenty-five years of age; less common in middle life, it is rare after sixty. The most common source of infection is from the faeces and urine of infected persons, hence the channels of infection are contaminated water, milk, and food-stuffs. Much public interest has been roused by the infection, through contaminated sewage-water, of watercress, celery, oysters, and other shell-fish, and various outbreaks have arisen through these agents. A further danger is the 'enteric carrier', a person who has once had enteric fever, and who is harbouring the bacillus for many years in his gall-bladder or elsewhere, and whose stools and urine may be infectious for an indefinite period.

The incubation period is very variable, ranging from one to three weeks, while the onset of the disease itself is usually insidious. The patient complains of feeling out of sorts and of headache, soon followed by the signs of chill, due to the rising temperature, and associated with sleeplessness, occasionally severe head symptoms, and much digestive disturbance.