Part 19

EMPLOYMENT BUREAUS were first established on a considerable scale in the United Kingdom by the Labour Exchanges Act, 1909. They were to some extent based upon the German public labour exchanges, which came into being after 1893 in most large towns, and were either municipal or maintained by voluntary associations and supported by the municipality. Their chief object was to put employers and work-people into touch with a view to employment. Before 1909 a few public employment bureaus had been established in Great Britain. An Act of 1905 established distress committees in boroughs and urban districts, which were given power to establish labour exchanges. These powers were in some cases exercised, either by taking over existing bureaus or establishing new ones. Only in London was the system of importance. The 1909 Act gave the Board of Trade power to establish labour exchanges; and, by regulations under the Act, the United Kingdom has been divided into divisions in each of which are a number of exchanges of different grades. The system is industrial and not eleemosynary, aiming solely at providing a recognized market-place for labour. No fees are charged, and use of the exchanges is voluntary. Work-people may register at an exchange between certain hours, and, when a suitable vacancy occurs, the applicant is sent to the employer. Applications for work-people are generally received by telephone, and are recorded if no suitable applicant is available. An important part of the work of the labour exchange is in connection with Unemployed Insurance, under Part II, National Insurance Act, 1911. This provided for payment of unemployed benefit in a limited number of occupations. Subsequent Acts (notably that of 1920) have extended the system to cover the majority of occupations. The scheme is contributory, but the State shares the cost with employers and work-people.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H. Beveridge, _Unemployment_; F. A. Keller, _Out of Work: a study of unemployment_.

EM'POLI, a town in North Italy, on the left bank of the Arno, 16 miles W.S.W. of Florence; it has an old collegiate church with good paintings, and manufactures of straw-bonnets. Pop. 21,500.

EMPO'RIA, a town of the United States, in Kansas, on the Neosho River, with a normal school, and a good trade in grain and cattle. Pop. 9050.

EMPYREU'MA, the smell arising from organic matter when subjected to the action of fire, but not enough to carbonize it entirely. The products of imperfect combustion, as from wood heated in heaps or distilled in close vessels, are frequently distinguished as empyreumatic.

EMS, or BAD EMS, a beautiful watering-place in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, on the River Lahn, not far from its confluence with the Rhine. Its mineral waters are warm--from 70deg to 118deg F.,--contain large quantities of carbonic acid gas, and are used in chronic catarrhs, pulmonary complaints, diseases of the stomach, gout, and some diseases of the urinary vessels. There are about 8000 visitors each season. Pop. 6850.

EMS, a river of North-West Germany, which flows north-west through Rhenish Prussia and Hanover, and falls into the Dollart Estuary near Emden; length 230 miles.

EMU. See _Emeu_.

EMUL'SINE, or SYNAPTASE, originally the name given to the mixture of enzymes in bitter and sweet almonds. Emulsine has the property of being able to hydrolyse the glucoside amygdalin to glucose, benzaldehyde, and hydrocyanic acid.

E'MYS, a genus of water-tortoises native to Europe and North America, and belonging to the family Testudinidae, which includes most reptiles of the tortoise kind.

ENALIOSAU'RIANS ('sea-lizards'), a group of gigantic Mesozoic reptiles of which the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus were the chief.

ENAM'EL, a vitreous glaze coloured with metallic oxides, and, when first introduced, made to adhere by fusion on metals, &c. The ancient Babylonians enamelled bricks. No finer enamelling on bronze was done than that done in early Britain. The ancient Britons achieved great skill in decorating bronze shields, armlets, chariot pieces, helmets, &c., with red, blue, and white enamels during the Late Celtic (Early Iron Age) period and later. Indeed it is believed that the _champlev['e]_ process of excavating hollows for enamel on metal in various flowing and artistic designs of symbolic character was developed in pre-Roman Britain. Philostratus, a third-century classical writer, referring to the enamelled trappings of horses, remarks that "the barbarians who reside in Ocean pour these colours on heated bronze, so that they adhere and become hard as stone". Beautiful specimens of enamelled bronze found in England, Scotland, and Ireland, preserved in the British Museum, include the Battersea and Witham shields, bridle-bits from Dumfries, and Rise, near Hull, and an enamelled 'terret' from the Fayum, Egypt, whither, archaeologists believed, it was taken by some Roman soldier. Enamelling on bronze and iron was practised in Central Europe and at Koban in the Caucasus at an earlier date than in Italy and Egypt. Byzantine enamels on gold date from the tenth century. M. Salomon Reinach was the first to point out that red enamels were used as substitutes for coral, which, by the way, had a religious value as a 'life giver' and 'protector'. The later blue enamel may have been a substitute for lapis-lazuli, and other enamels, white, violet, green, and yellow, for other sacred stones. The ancient enamels are more or less opaque. Transparent enamels were favoured in the thirteenth century by Italian goldsmiths. A favourite method of applying enamel is known as _cloisonn['e]_, which means inlaid between partitions. The design is outlined in bent-wire fillets, which are fastened to the plate by means of silver solder or the enamel itself. In _champlev['e]_ work the plate itself is scooped out into channels for the enamel. The distinction between _cloisonn['e]_ and _champlev['e]_ work, therefore, is something like the distinction between a breastwork and a trench. Enamelled glass is really deeply coloured glass. Bicycle enamel is made of asphalt or resin dissolved in oil, each coat being hardened by heat. Enamel paint is made by mixing copal varnish, &c., with metallic oxides. A special preparation is applied to leather which is afterwards heated--this is 'patent leather'. Enamel painting dates back to the sixteenth century and is used nowadays chiefly for street signs and advertisements. The term 'enamel' is applied to the hard protective coating of teeth.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Molinier, _Dictionnaire des ['e]mailleurs_; H. Cunynghame, _Art of Enamelling_; A. Fisher, _The Art of Enamelling upon Metal_; H. M. Chapin, _How to Enamel_.

ENA'RA, a lake in the north of Finland, about 50 miles long by 30 miles broad. It is studded by innumerable islets, receives several streams, and is connected by the Patsjoki with the Arctic Ocean. At its south-west extremity is a small fishing-town of the same name, with an annual fair.

ENARE'A, a region belonging to the country of the Gallas, south of Abyssinia. Sakha is the principal town. Coffee and ivory are the chief exports. The inhabitants are the most civilized of the Gallas.

ENCAR'PUS, in architecture, a sculptured ornament in imitation of a garland of fruits, leaves, or flowers, suspended between two points. The garland is widest in the middle, and diminishes gradually to the points of suspension, from which the ends generally hang down. The encarpus is sometimes composed of an imitation of drapery similarly disposed, and sometimes of an assemblage of musical instruments, implements of war or of the chase.

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, a kind of painting practised by the ancients, for the perfecting of which heating or burning-in was required. Pliny distinguishes three species, in all of which wax was used with colours, and applied either with bronze instruments (cauteria), a sharp-pointed tool (cestrum), or brushes. The art has been revived in modern times, but has not been greatly employed. As the chief aim in encaustic painting was the securing of permanence and durability by the application of heat, the word _encaustic_ has been applied to other and widely different processes. Thus it has been used for painting on earthen vessels, for painting on porcelain and work in enamel; and in the same way it was given to the painting on glass of the Middle Ages.--Cf. A. P. Laurie, _Greek and Roman Methods of Painting_.

ENCAUSTIC TILES, ornamental paving-tiles of baked pottery, much used during the Middle Ages in the pavements of churches and other ecclesiastical buildings. The encaustic tile, strictly so-called, was decorated with patterns formed by different coloured clays inlaid in the tile and fired with it. The art appears to have originated in the latter part of the twelfth century, to have attained its highest perfection during the thirteenth, and to have sunk into disuse in the fifteenth. During the whole of this period it was principally carried on in England and Normandy. After a long lapse the art was revived in England in 1830 by Wright, a Shelton potter. In modern manufacture two methods are employed, the 'plastic' and the 'semi-dry' or 'dust' method. The first is, in all essentials, that used in the Middle Ages, except, perhaps, in the perfection of modern moulding appliances; the second consists in ramming pulverized clay with a minimum of moisture into metal dies, the subsequent firing of tiles thus consolidated being attended with less risk from shrinkage.

ENCE'NIA, festivals anciently commemorative of the founding of a city or the dedication of a church; and in later times periodical ceremonies, as at Oxford, in commemoration of founders and benefactors.

ENCEPHALARTOS, a genus of Cyeads, natives of Africa. Meal (Kaffir-bread) is made from the pith by the natives.

ENCHANTER'S NIGHTSHADE, a name common to plants of the genus Circaea, nat. ord. Onagraceae, of which there are two British species, _C. luteti[=a]na_ and _C. alp[=i]na_. The former is about a foot and a half high, and has delicate ovate leaves, small white flowers tinged with pink, and small roundish fruits covered with hooked bristles. It abounds in shady woods. _C. alp[=i]na_, which is similar, but smaller and more delicate, is found in Scotland and north of England. They have no affinity with the nightshades.

ENCHORIAL (en-k[=o]'ri-al) WRITING, the form of writing used by the old Egyptians for the common purposes of life, as distinct from the hieroglyphic and hieratic (used by the priests). It is also called _Demotic_.

ENCKE (en'ke), Johann Franz, German astronomer, born at Hamburg in 1791, died in 1865. He studied under the astronomer Gauss at G[:o]ttingen. During the War of Liberation (1813-5) he served as artillerist in the German army, and after the peace became assistant in the observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha. Here he calculated the orbit of the comet observed by Mechain, Miss Herschel, and Pons, predicted its return, and detected a gradual acceleration of movement, ascribed by him to the presence of a resisting medium. The comet is now known as Encke's comet. The fame of his works _Die Entfernung der Sonne_ (The Distance of the Sun) and _Der Venusdurchgang von 1769_ (Transit of Venus of 1769) led to his appointment as director of the Berlin Observatory (1825), a position which he held till his death. From 1830 he edited the _Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch_.

ENCKE'S COMET. This object was seen in 1786, and at some subsequent returns, before it was discovered by Encke in 1819 to be a periodic comet. It has since been observed at numerous returns. It revolves round the sun in about three and one-third years, having the shortest period of any comet known. It has exhibited very prominently the feature, shown by many comets, of a contraction of the head or coma on approaching the sun. Encke's comet long manifested the most remarkable feature of a shortening of its period by about two and a half hours in each revolution. The suggestion was made that this was due to resistance by a rare medium generally diffused in the solar system, which had the effect of reducing its aphelion distance and diminishing its orbit. This, however, is improbable, as other comets show no similar effect. The cause remains undiscovered, and a further extraordinary fact is that the shortening of period is found since 1868 to have been only half of its previous amount.

ENCLAVE ([.a]n-kl[=a]v), a term used in German and French to denote a place or country which is entirely surrounded by the territories of another power.

EN'CRINITE, or CRINOIDEA (Gr. _krinon_, lily, and _eidos_, form), a name often applied to all the marine animals of the class Crinoidea or stone-lilies, phylum Echinodermata, except feather-stars; but more specifically restricted to the genera having rounded, smooth stems attached to the bottom, and supporting the body of the animal, which has numerous jointed arms radiating from a central disc, in which the mouth is situated. Encrinites were exceedingly numerous in past ages of the world's history; of those still existing our knowledge has been greatly increased of recent years through deep-sea dredging. Some of these forms are very graceful and interesting. See _Crinoidea_; _Echinodermata_.

ENCY'CLICAL, a sort of circular letter or manifesto issued by a pope, and directed to the Roman Catholic clergy generally or to those of a certain country or area, giving instructions as to conduct to be observed at certain conjunctures, condemning erroneous doctrines, &c. The encyclical, which is a somewhat less formal document than a bull, was especially favoured by Pope Pius IX and Leo XIII. Pope Pius IX issued one in 1864, wherein he condemned eighty alleged errors in modern ideas of religion and civilization, and Pius X issued another in 1907, wherein he condemned modernism. A number of encyclicals was issued by Pope Leo XIII on Bible Study, Socialism, Capital and Labour.

ENCYCLOPEDIA (Gr. _en_, in, _kyklos_, a circle, and _paideia_, instruction), a systematic view of the whole extent of human knowledge or of particular departments of it, with the subjects arranged generally in alphabetic order. Varro and Pliny the elder, among the Romans, attempted works of an encyclopedic nature, the latter in his well-known _Historia Naturalis_, or _Natural History_. Other ancient encyclopedic works were those of Stobaeus and Suidas, and especially of Marcianus Capella. In the thirteenth century a work on a regular plan was compiled by the Dominican Vincent of Beauvais (died 1264), in which was exhibited the whole sum of the knowledge of the Middle Ages. His work was entitled _Speculum Historiale, Naturale, Doctrinale_, to which an anonymous author added, some years later, a _Speculum Morale_. Roger Bacon's _Opus Majus_ also belonged to the encyclopedic class. An exceedingly popular work was the _De Proprietatibus Rerum_ of Bartholomeus de Glanvilla, an English Franciscan friar, which maintained its reputation from 1360 to the middle of the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth century various encyclopedic works were compiled, such as the Latin one of Johann Heinrich Alsted (in 7 vols., Herborn, 1620). In 1674 appeared the first edition of Moreri's _Le Grand Dictionnaire Historique_; in 1677 Johann Jacob Hoffmann published at Basel his _Lexicon Universale_; and in 1697 appeared Bayle's famous _Dictionnaire Historique et Critique_, which is still of great value. The first English alphabetical encyclopaedia was the _Lexicon Technicum_, published in 1704. Among the chief English works of this kind are: 1. Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia, or A Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences_, published in 1728 in 2 vols. folio. 2. _The Encyclopaedia Britannica_, published in Edinburgh, in nine editions--the first in 1788, the ninth in 1875-88 (24 vols. 4to, with supplement, 11 vols., 1902-3). The tenth edition was published in 1902, and the eleventh issued in 1910-11 by the University Press, Cambridge. 3. Rees' _Cyclopaedia_, 39 vols. 4to, illustrated, 1802-20. 4. _Edinburgh Encyclopaedia_, 1810-30, 18 vols. 4to, conducted by Sir David (then Dr.) Brewster. 5. _Encyclopaedia Metropolitana_, London, 29 vols. 4to, and containing some valuable complete treatises. 6. _The London Encyclopaedia_, by Thomas Curtis, 22 vols. 4to; London, 1829. 7. _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, in 28 vols. small folio, 1833-43; since recast under the name of the _English Cyclopaedia_. 8. _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in 10 vols. 9. _The Popular Encyclopaedia_, issued in 14 vols. 10. Harmsworth's _Universal Encyclopedia_. 11. Nelson's _The New Age Encyclopaedia_. 12. _The New Gresham Encyclopedia_, 12 vols. (one being index). The chief American encyclopaedias are the _Encyclopaedia Americana_, in 13 vols.; the _New American Cyclopaedia_, in 16 vols.; _Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia_, 8 vols.; _The New International Encyclopaedia_, 25 vols. Of the French cyclopaedias the most famous is the great _Dictionnaire Encyclop['e]dique_, by Diderot and D'Alembert (see next article); the _Encyclop['e]die M['e]thodique, ou par Ordre des Mati[`e]res_, Paris, 1781-1832, in 201 vols. 4to, of which 47 are plates; the _Encyclop['e]die Moderne_, 1824-32, 26 vols.; the _Encyclop['e]die des Gens du Monde_, 1835-44, 22 vols.; the _Dictionnaire de la Conversation et de la Lecture_, 1851-58; the excellent _Grande Encyclop['e]die_, 31 vols.; and the large and valuable _Grand Dictionnaire Universel du XIX^e Si[`e]cle_, published by Larousse, 16 vols. folio (with supplementary vols.); _The Nouveau Larousse Illustr['e]_, 7 vols. Numerous works of this kind have been published in Germany, the most popular being the _Conversations-Lexikon_ of Brockhaus; Meyer's _Konversations-Lexicon_; Pierer's _Konversations-Lexikon_; and that issued by Spamer. The most comprehensive is the _Allgemeine Encyklop[:a]die_, originally edited by Professors Ersch and Gruber, begun in 1818, and not yet completed. _The Rousskiy Entsiklopeditsheskiy Slovarj_, the best Russian encyclopedia, in 43 vols, was published between 1905 and 1908.

ENCYCLOP['E]DIE ([.a]n-sik-lo-p[=a]-d[=e]), THE FRENCH, one of the most important literary enterprises of the eighteenth century, originated in a French translation of Ephraim Chambers's _Cyclopaedia_. Diderot was appointed to edit it, and enlisted the ablest men of the time as contributors. D'Alembert (who wrote the famous _Discours pr['e]liminaire_) edited the mathematics; Rousseau wrote the musical articles; Daubenton, those connected with natural history; the Abb['e] Yvon, those on logic, metaphysics, and ethics; Toussaint, those on jurisprudence; Buffon contributed the article _Nature_; and Montesquieu, Voltaire, Euler, Marmontel, D'Holbach, Turgot, Grimm, and Condorcet took some share in the great work. Diderot himself was a prolific contributor on a wide variety of topics. The prospectus appeared in Nov., 1750, and the first volume in 1751, the whole being completed, despite fierce opposition, in 1765. The contributors to the _Encyclop['e]die_, the majority of whom held unorthodox views on religious, political, and social subjects, are known as the _Encyclop['e]distes_.

ENDEM'IC (Gr. _en_ and _demos_, people) is a term applied to diseases peculiar to people of a particular district or of a nation or country. The cause of this may be due to the physical characters of the place, or to the mode of living, habits, &c., of the people. Diseases endemic in one region may appear elsewhere when similar influences arise.

EN'DERBY LAND, an island in the Antarctic Ocean, long. 50deg E., crossed by the Antarctic Circle. It was discovered by John Biscoe in 1831.

EN'DIVE. See _Chicory_.

ENDLESS SCREW, a mechanical contrivance, consisting of a screw the thread of which gears into a wheel with skew teeth, the obliquity corresponding to the angle of pitch of the screw. It is generally employed as a means of producing slow motion in the adjustments of machines, rather than as transmitter of any great amount of power.

ENDLICHER (end'li-h[.e]r), Stephen Ladislaus, Hungarian botanist, born at Presburg in 1804. He was successively court-librarian at Vienna, and keeper of the natural history museum; and in 1840 was appointed professor of botany in the University of Vienna, and director of the botanic garden, which he immediately began to reorganize. He took part on the popular side in the German revolution of 1848, and died by his own hand in 1849. Among his chief botanical works are his _Genera Plantarum_, a systematic treatise on botany; and his _Enchiridion Botanicum_, or _Manual of Botany_.

ENDOCARDI'TIS, is inflammation of the endocardium, which is the lining membrane of the internal surface of the heart.

ENDODERMIS, the innermost layer of the cortex. It acts as a 'physiological barrier' between the vascular tissues and the cortex, its structure being such as to compel all interchange of water and other materials between the two to pass through the living protoplasm of the endodermal cells. Sec _Tissues of Plants_.

ENDOG'AMY (Gr. _endon_, within, _gamos_, marriage), a custom among some savage peoples of marrying only within their own tribe: opposite to _exogamy_.

ENDOGENOUS PLANTS, old name for monocotyledons (q.v.).

ENDOGENOUS STRUCTURES, in botany, are those which arise in the interior of the parent organ. Lateral roots furnish the best example. Opposed to exogenous structures (see also _Branching_ and _Root_).

EN'DOMORPH, a term applied to crystals of minerals enclosed in those of other minerals.

EN'DOPARASITE (Gr. _endon_, within), a parasite living within, and at the expense of, another organism, as opposed to an _ectoparasite_, which attacks its host from the exterior.

EN'DOSKELETON, in anatomy, a term applied to the internal bony structure of man and other animals (Gr. _endon_, within), in contradistinction to _exoskeleton_, which is the outer and hardened covering of such animals as the crab and lobster.

EN'DOSMOSE, or ENDOSMO'SIS, the transmission of liquids or gases through porous septa or partitions from the exterior to the interior of a vessel. When two different liquids or gases are separated by a porous vessel, the two fluids pass through the walls of the vessel at different rates, causing a change of volume and of pressure inside and outside the vessel. Endosmose is the name applied to the flow towards the fluid which is increasing in volume. When the transfer of liquid across the porous partition takes place in a cell through which an electric current is flowing the effect is called electrical endosmose.

EN'DOSPERM, the tissue surrounding the embryo in many seeds and contained with it within the testa. It forms a supply of food for the germinating embryo, and is also called albumen.

ENDYM'ION, in Greek mythology, a huntsman, a shepherd, or a king of Elis, who is said to have asked of Zeus, or to have received as a punishment, eternal sleep. Others relate that Sel[=e]n[=e] or Diana (the moon) conveyed him to Mount Latmos in Caria, and threw him into a perpetual sleep in order that she might enjoy his society whenever she pleased. Endymion is also supposed to be a personification of the sun, or of the plunge of the setting sun into the sea.--Cf. Keats, _Endymion_.