Part 2

ATTRAC'TION, the tendency of all material bodies, whether masses or particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain united. Newton was the first to adopt the theory of a universal attractive force, and to determine its laws. When bodies tend to come together from sensible distances the tendency is termed either the attraction of _gravitation_, _magnetism_, or _electricity_, according to circumstances; when the attraction operates at insensible distances it is known as _adhesion_ with respect to surfaces, as _cohesion_ with respect to the particles of a body, and as _affinity_ when the particles of different bodies tend together. It is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies fall to the earth when unsupported.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Newton, _Principia_; Thomson and Tait, _Natural Philosophy_; Laplace, _Mecanique Celeste_; Poynting, _The Mean Density of the Earth_.

ATTREK. See _Atrek_.

AT'TRIBUTE, in philosophy, a quality or property of a substance, as whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a congeries of attributes.

In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St. George.

ATTWOOD, George, F.R.S., an English mathematician, born 1746, died 1807, best known by his invention, called after him _Attwood's Machine_, for verifying the laws of falling bodies. It consists essentially of a freely-moving pulley over which runs a fine cord with two equal weights suspended from the ends. A small additional weight is laid upon one of them, causing it to descend with uniform acceleration. Means are provided by which the added weight can be removed at any point of the descent, thus allowing the motion to continue from this point onward with uniform velocity. See _Gravitation_.

ATYS, or ATTIS (at'is), in classical mythology, the shepherd lover of Cyb[)e]le, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made her, castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have been a deity, with somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has written a celebrated poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis.

AUBAGNE ([=o]-b[.a]n-y[.e]), a town in France, department of Bouches-du-Rhone, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop. 8800.

AUBAINE, DROIT D' (drwae d[=o]-b[=a]n). See _Droit d'Aubaine_.

AUBE ([=o]b), a north-eastern French department; area 2326 sq. miles; pop. 227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the Aube, &c. The N. and N.W. districts are bleak and infertile, the southern districts remarkably fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests and vineyards, and the soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The chief manufactures are worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capital.--The River Aube, which gives name to the department, rises in Haute-Marne, flows N.W., and after a course of 113 miles joins the Seine.

AUBENAS ([=o]b-nae), a town of France, department Ardeche, with a trade in coal, silk, &c. Pop. 7206.

AUBER ([=o]-b[=a]r), Daniel Francois Esprit, a French operatic composer, born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871. He was originally intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself to music, studying under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera _La Bergere Chatelaine_, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated himself with Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick succession. Chief among them were _Masaniello_ or _La Muette de Portici_ (1828), _Fra Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino Noir_ (1837), _Les Diamants de la Couronne_ (1841), _Marco Spada_ (1853), _La Fiancee du Roi de Garbe_ (1864). Despite his success in _Masaniello_, his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his charming melodies, bearing strongly the stamp of the French national character, his uniform grace and piquancy, won him a high place.

AUBERGINE ([=o]'b[.e]r-zh[=e]n), the fruit of the eggplant (q.v.).

AUBERVILLIERS ([=o]-b[=a]r-v[=e]l-y[=a]), a suburban locality of Paris, with a fort belonging to the defensive works of the city. Pop. 37,558.

AUBIGNE, Merle d'. See _Merle d'Aubigne_.

AUBIN ([=o]-ba[n.]), a town of Southern France, department of Aveyron, 20 miles N.E. of Villefranche; mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron. Pop. 9574.

AU'BREY, John, F.R.S., an English antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or 1626, died about 1700. He was educated at Oxford; collected materials for the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the antiquary. He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used by subsequent writers. His _Miscellanies_ (London, 1696) contain much curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His _Survey of Surrey_ was incorporated in Rawlinson's _Natural History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey_, which was published in 1719.

AU'BURN, the name of many places in America, the chief being a handsome city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is chiefly famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000 prisoners. In the town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on. Pop. 36,142.--Another Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River, a manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 16,985.

AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), a town of the interior of France, department Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211.

AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), Pierre d', grand-master of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French family, served in early life against the Turks, then entered the order of St. John, obtained a commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476 succeeded the Grand-master Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the head-quarters of the order, was invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men. The town was besieged for two months and then assaulted, but the Turks were obliged to retire with great loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503.

AUCH ([=o]sh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department Gers; the seat of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in France; manufactures linens, leather, &c. Pop. 13,638.

AUCHENIA ([a:]-k[=e]'ni-a). See _Llama_.

AUCHTERAR'DER, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures of tweeds, tartans, &c. The opposition to the presentee to the church of Auchterarder (1839) originated the struggle which ended in the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151.

AUCK'LAND, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded in 1840, and situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of New Zealand, where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another harbour (Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water there is sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The working ship channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width from 1 to 2 miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse; and is defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and two graving-docks, one of which--the Calliope Dock, opened in 1887--is one of the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its site is picturesque, the streets are spacious, and the public buildings--churches, educational establishments, including a university college--are numerous and handsome. It has a large and increasing trade, there being connection with the chief places on the island by rail, and regular communication with the other ports of the colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the capital of the colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.--The provincial district of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area of 25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified; volcanic phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &c.; rivers are numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &c., are exported. Much gold has been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere.

AUCKLAND, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744; educated at Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of State 1772, and in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was nominated in conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator between Britain and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards Secretary of State for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France, Ambassador Extraordinary to the Netherlands, &c. He was raised to the peerage in 1788, and died in 1814.

AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New Zealand, discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of volcanic origin and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15, has two good harbours. There are no settled inhabitants.

AUCTION is a public sale to the party offering the best price where the buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first accepts the terms offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his terms until someone accepts them. The latter form is known as a _Dutch Auction_. A sale by auction must be conducted in the most open and public manner possible; and there must be no collusion on the part of the buyers. Puffing, or mock bidding, to raise the value by apparent competition, is illegal.

AUCTIONEER', a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his duty to state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, and to terminate the sale by _knocking down_ the thing sold to the highest bidder. In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which he pays L10), renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer are not suffered to control the printed conditions of sale. The Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom was founded in 1886.

AU'CUBA, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceae, one species of which, _A. japonica_, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a native of Japan and China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe. The flowers are dioecious and inconspicuous. For a long time only the female plant, introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was cultivated, but in 1850 the male was introduced, and the fruit, which consists of beautiful coral-red berries, is now frequently developed, and adds greatly to the attractiveness of the plant. _A. himalaica_, also brought to Europe, is less hardy.

AUDE ([=o]d), a maritime department in the S. of France; area 2448 sq. miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or the Cevennes, and traversed W. to E. by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile, yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130 miles.

AUDEBERT ([=o]d-b[=a]r), Jean Baptiste, French engraver and naturalist, born in 1759, died in 1800; published _Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Galeopitheques_; _Histoire des Colibris_, &c.; and began _Histoire des Grimpereaux et des Oiseaux de Paradis_, finished by Desray--all finely-illustrated works.

AU'DENSHAW, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of Manchester, with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &c. Pop. (1921), 7878.

AUDIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of hearing, invented by Professor D. E. Hughes, of London, in 1879.

AU'DIPHONE, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf persons are enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped plate of hardened caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree by strings, and is very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge is pressed against the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and the sounds being collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory nerve without passing through the external ear.

AU'DIT, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or property, along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, especially by proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also the occasion of receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate.

AU'DITOR, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or private, to see whether they are correct and in accordance with vouchers. In Britain the public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and Audit Department, Somerset House, at the head of it being a comptroller and auditor-general, and an assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a large staff of clerks. In Scotland there is an auditor attached to the Court of Session appointed to tax costs in litigation.

AUDITORY NERVES. See _Ear_.

AUDLEY, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire, to the north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron mines. Pop. (1921), 14,751.

AUDRAN ([=o]-draen), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver, born 1640; studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at Paris 1703. He engraved Le Brun's _Battles of Alexander_, two of Raphael's cartoons, Poussin's _Coriolanus_, &c., and takes a first place among historical engravers. Other members of the family were successful in the same profession: Benoit, 1661-1721; Claude _pere_, 1592-1677; Claude _fils_, 1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean, 1667-1756.

AU'DUBON, John James, an American naturalist of French extraction, born near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and studied painting under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but having a great love for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and child, descended the Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every direction, drawing the birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England, exhibited his drawings in Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and finally published them in an unrivalled work of double-folio size, with 435 coloured plates of birds the size of life (_The Birds of America_, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an accompanying text (_Ornithological Biography_, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written by Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled _The Quadrupeds of America_ (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851.

AUERBACH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop. 2200.

AUERBACH (ou'[.e]r-bae_h_), Berthold, a distinguished German author of Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned the study of Jewish theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836 his _Judaism and Modern Literature_, and a translation of the works of Spinoza with critical biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were tales or novels, and his _Village Tales of the Black Forest_ (_Schwarzwaelder Dorfgeschichten_), as well as others of his writings, have been translated into several languages. Other works: _Barfuessele_, _Joseph im Schnee_, _Edelweiss_, _Auf der Hoehe_, _Das Landhaus am Rhein_, _Waldfried_, _Brigitta_.

AUERSTAEDT (ou'[.e]r-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See _Jena_.

AUGEAS ([a:]-j[=e]'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in Greece, whose stable contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for thirty years. Hercules undertook to clear away the filth in one day in return for a tenth part of the cattle, and executed the task by turning the River Alph[=e]us through it. Augeas, having broken the bargain, was deposed and slain by Hercules.

AUGER ([a:]'g[.e]r), an instrument for boring holes considerably larger than those bored by a gimlet, used by carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights, &c.

AUGEREAU ([=o]zh-r[=o]), Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione, Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He adopted the life of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of general of division in the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione, and Arcole he highly distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and was the instrument of the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Fructidor (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He then obtained the command of the army in Holland, and fought till the end of the campaign. In 1803 he was appointed to lead the army collected at Bayonne against Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of the empire, and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He subsequently took part in the battles of Jena and Eylau, held a command in Spain, and in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria against Saxony, taking part in the battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII, who named him a peer. He died 1816.

AUGHRIM, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the decisive victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the forces of William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French troops, under St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700, while the Irish lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material. This battle caused the complete submission of the country.

AUGIER ([=o]-zhi-[=a]), Emile, noted French dramatist, born 1820, came young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but relinquished law for literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868 a commander of the Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas was the comedy _La Cigue_ (1844); among his other works are _L'Aventuriere_, _Gabrielle_, _Paul Forestier_, _Le Mariage d'Olympe_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Les Effrontes_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, _Les Lions et les Renards_, _Maitre Guerin_, _Les Fourchambault_, &c. He died in 1889.

AUGITE ([a:]'j[=i]t) is the commonest member of the pyroxene group of minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as basalt, gabbro, &c. It crystallizes in short almost rectangular prisms of the monoclinic system, modifying planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its specific gravity is about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to scratch glass; colour usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow recrystallization into hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It may be imitated by the artificial fusion of its constituents. A transparent, green, non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is used in jewellery.

AUGSBURG (ougz'b[u:]r_h_; Lat. _Augusta Vindelicorum_), a city of Bavaria, at the junction of the Wertach and Lech, antique in appearance, but with some fine streets, squares, and handsome or interesting buildings, including a splendid town hall, a lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral, with paintings by Domenichino, Holbein, &c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the bishop's palace, where the Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet, afterwards a royal residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the celebrated Fugger family; the public library; the theatre; the Academy of Arts; and the Fuggerei, a separate quarter of the city, consisting of fifty-three small houses, tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent Roman Catholics. Augsburg was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle Ages, and is still an important emporium of South German and Italian trade; industries: cotton spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture, machinery and metal goods, books and printing, chemicals, &c. The Emperor Augustus established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free city, and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north and south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle Ages. It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next article.) In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555.

AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document which was presented by the Protestants at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and the Diet, and being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their creed. Luther made the original draft; but as its style appeared too violent it was given to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be found in the imperial Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some of the articles, and there arose a division between those who held the original and those who held the altered Augsburg Confession. The former is received by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed.

AU'GURS, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the Romans, predicted future events and announced the will of the gods from the occurrence of certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky, especially thunder and lightning; signs from the flight and cries of birds; from the feeding of the sacred chickens; from the course taken or sounds uttered by various quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or occurrences, such as spilling the salt, sneezing, &c. The answers of the augurs as well as the signs by which they were governed were called _auguries_, but bird-predictions were properly termed _auspices_. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken without consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words _alio die_ ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the people and annul all decrees passed at the meeting.

AU'GUST, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the Roman year, and hence was called _Sext[=i]lis_ till the Emperor Augustus affixed to it his own name.

AUGUS'TA, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta Trevirorum, now _Treves_; Augusta Taurinorum, now _Turin_; Augusta Vindelicorum, now _Augsburg_; &c.

AUGUSTA (ou-g[u:]s't[.a]), or AGOS'TA, a seaport in the south-east of Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil, honey, &c. Pop. 17,250.

AUGUS'TA, capital of Maine, United States, on the River Kennebec, which is crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels 43 miles from its mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20 miles farther up and furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920), 14,144.

AUGUSTA, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United States, on the left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth; well built, and connected with the river by high-level canals; an important manufacturing centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and railroad works, &c. Pop. (1920), 52,548.