Part 1

Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net

Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text.

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Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron"; [)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above"; [n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.

THE

NEW . GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME . I . PART . 3

_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING COMPANY . _Limited_

66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND LONDON W.C.2. 1922

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LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

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VOLUME I PART 3

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PLATES

Page

BACTERIA 348

MAPS IN COLOUR

AUSTRALIA 316

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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

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The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--

VOWELS

[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.

[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.

[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.

a, as in f_a_t.

[a:], as in f_a_ll.

_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common in Indian names.

[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.

e, as in m_e_t.

[.e], as in h_e_r.

[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.

i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in French and Italian words.

_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne, G_oe_the (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.

[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.

o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.

[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.

[=u] as in t_u_be.

u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.

[u:], as in b_u_ll.

[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.

[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger. M_ue_ller.

oi, as in _oi_l.

ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.

CONSONANTS

Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:--

ch is always as in ri_ch_.

_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.

g is always hard, as in _g_o.

_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other similar gutturals.

[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.

r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in _s_o.

th, as _th_ in _th_in.

_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.

w always consonantal, as in _w_e.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written l[=e]ny).

zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.

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ATREB'ATES, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica, afterwards called _Artois_. A colony of them settled in Britain, in a part of Berkshire and Oxfordshire.

AT'REK, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia and the Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian; length 250 miles.

ATREUS (at'r[=u]s), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and Hippodam[=i]a, and grandson of Tant[)a]lus. Atreus was the father of Agamemnon, according to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's grandfather. He succeeded Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of Myc[=e]nae, and in revenge for the seduction of his wife by his brother Thyestes gave a banquet at which the latter partook of the flesh of his own sons. Atreus was killed by Aegisthus, a son of Thyestes. The tragic events connected with this family furnished materials to some of the great Greek dramatists.

ATRI (ancient, HADRIA), an episcopal city in the province of Teramo, Italy, 8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old (thirteenth century) Gothic cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and buildings, and a palace of the Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043.

AT'RIPLEX. See _Orache_.

A'TRIUM, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a Roman house, generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and _imagines_ or ancestral likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax kept in cases. The _atrium_ formed the reception-room for visitors and clients. It was lighted by the _compluvium_, an opening in the roof, towards which the roof sloped so as to throw the rainwater into a cistern in the floor called the _impluvium_.

In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into which the intestine opens in the Tunicata.

AT'ROPA, the nightshade genus of plants. See _Belladonna_.

AT'ROPHY, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with the nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want of proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &c., and it is also sometimes produced by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, painters, gilders, &c. In old age the whole frame except the heart undergoes atrophic change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as a consequence of improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or impure air, &c. Single organs or parts of the body may be affected irrespective of the general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be superinduced by palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the limbs, or by artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies.

AT'ROPIN, or AT'ROPINE, a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the deadly nightshade (_Atr[)o]pa Belladonna_). It is very poisonous, and produces persistent dilation of the pupil.

AT'ROPOS, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being Clotho and Lach[)e]sis), who cuts the thread of life with her shears.

ATTACHE (at'a-sh[=a]), a junior member of the diplomatic services attached to an embassy or legation.

ATTACH'MENT, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or estate by virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an _arrest_ by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies often against the goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a _distress_ in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress cannot touch the body.--_Foreign attachment_ answers to what in Scotland is termed arrestment, by means of which a creditor may obtain the security of the goods or other personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third person for the purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer to an action, and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the property absolutely in satisfaction of the demand.

ATTACK', the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to dislodge an enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous to offer than to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic forms of attack are: (1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings attack and the centre is kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is pushed forward and the wings kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode, dating at least from Epaminondas, and employed by Frederick the Great, where one wing advances to engage, whilst the other is kept back, and occupies the attention of the enemy by pretending an attack. Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns against an enemy's centre. The forms of attack have changed with the weapons used. In the days of the pike heavy masses were the rule, but the use of the musket led to an extended battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in long and slender lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in the annals of British attack than the square formation in those of defence. In the European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation; but British attacks were usually carried out by successive _waves_; one wave secured its objective and consolidated it while another wave passed through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation became of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire, counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover. In trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in the attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet.

ATTAIN'DER, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or outlawry pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person being said to be _attainted_. It resulted in forfeiture of estate and 'corruption of blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting property or transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer follow. Formerly persons were often subjected to attainder by a special Bill or Act passed in Parliament called _Bills of Attainder_, the last being passed in 1798, in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders.

ATTAINT', a writ at common law against a jury for a false verdict, finally abolished in England in 1825.

ATTALE'A, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava palm, which produces coquilla-nuts.

ATT'ALUS, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133 B.C.), the last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. They were all patrons of art and literature.

AT'TAR, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from flowers; in Europe generally used only of the _attar_ or _otto of roses_, an essential oil made from _Rosa centifolia_, the hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, _R. damasc[=e]na_, or damask-rose, _R. mosch[=a]ta_, or musk-rose, &c., 100,000 roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus are celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in the valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is at first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green, yellow, and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes liquid about 84deg F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an oxygenated oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium, sandal-wood, and geranium, with the addition of camphor or spermaceti.

AT'TERBURY, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., and appeared as a controversialist in a defence of the character of Luther, entitled, _Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther_, &c. He also assisted his pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous controversy with Bentley on the _Epistles of Phalaris_. Having taken orders in 1691 he settled in London, became chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was congenial to him, and in 1706 he commenced one with Dr. Wake, which lasted four years, on the rights, privileges, and powers of convocations. For this service he received the thanks of the lower house of convocation and the degree of Doctor of Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the accession of Queen Anne he was made Dean of Carlisle, aided in the defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote _A Representation of the Present State of Religion_. In 1712 he was made Dean of Christ Church, and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster. After the death of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself by his opposition to George I; and, having entered into a correspondence with the Pretender's party, was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to the Tower. Being banished the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he chiefly occupied himself in study and in correspondence with men of letters. But even here, in 1725, he was actively engaged in fomenting discontent in the Scottish Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was privately interred in Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked by ease and grace; but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather dexterous and popular than accurate and profound.

ATTERCLIFFE, a parliamentary division of the borough of Sheffield.

ATTIC, an architectural term variously used. An _Attic base_ is a peculiar kind of base, used by the ancient architects in the Ionic order and by Palladio and some others in the Doric. An _Attic story_ is a low story in the upper part of a house rising above the main portion of the building. In ordinary language an attic is an apartment lighted by a window in the roof.

AT'TICA, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is Athens. The territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna) as its apex and the ranges of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes as its base. On the north these ranges separated it from Boeotia; on the west it was bounded by Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Aegean. Its most marked physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland district, and coast district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and of Athens. The Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief streams; its principal hills, Cithaeron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and Laurium. Its soil has probably undergone considerable deterioration, but produced good fruit, especially olives and figs. These are still cultivated, as well as the vine and cereals, but Attica is better suited for pasture than tillage. According to tradition the earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a savage manner until the time of Cecrops, who came, 1550 B.C., with a colony from Egypt, taught them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens. One of Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions round, and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is assigned the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens as the capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus, 1068 B.C., the monarchy was abolished, and the government vested in archons elected by the nobility, at first for life, in 752 B.C. for ten years, and in 683 B.C. for one year only. The severe constitution of Draco was succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic elements of which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were emphasized and developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten classes, and made the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the Government an oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the splendid era of the Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of fame. Miltiades at Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Persians by land and by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the rights of the people were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates were chosen from all classes without distinction. The period from the Persian War to the time of Alexander (500 to 336 B.C.) was most remarkable for the development of the Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and Pericles (444 B.C.) raised Athens to its point of greatest splendour, though under the latter began the Peloponnesian War, which ended with the conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. The succeeding tyranny of the Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan garrison, was overthrown by Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial restoration of the power of Athens; but the battle of Cheronaea (338 B.C.) made Attica, in common with the rest of Greece, a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death of Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the shelter of the Achaean League then ensued, but their support of Mithridates led, in 146 B.C., to the subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After the division of the Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East until, in A.D. 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the country devastated. Attica and Boeotia now form a nome or province of the kingdom of Greece, with a population of 407,063.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, _Athens and Attica_.

AT'TICUS, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture, born 109 B.C., and died 32 B.C. On the death of his father he removed to Athens to avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius had fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never to mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions. Sulla and the Marian party, Caesar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were alike friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed to him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one daughter, Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the age of seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by an incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a type of the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute, though none of his works have reached us.--The name Atticus was given to Addison by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the _Satires_, addressed to Dr. Arbuthnot).

AT'TILA (in Ger. _Etzel_), the famous leader of the Huns, was the son of Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his brother Bleda, of his uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended over a great part of Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an inglorious peace. Attila caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and in a short time extended his dominion over all the peoples of Germany and exacted tribute from the Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae, and a part of the Franks united under his banners, and he speedily formed a pretext for leading them against the Empire of the East. He laid waste all the countries from the Black to the Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters defeated the Emperor Theodosius, but could not take Constantinople. Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece all submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy flourishing cities; and Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning to the west, the 'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him, crossed with an immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to the Loire, and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled the first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of the Visigoths under their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to raise the siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of Chalons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the soothsayers the ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the victory of Attila seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who were defeated with great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he sought in the following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half the kingdom as a dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the plains of Lombardy, and was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with the Roman ambassadors to his camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary, and died on the night of his marriage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either from the bursting of a blood-vessel or by her hand. The description that Jordanes (or Jornandes) has left us of him is in keeping with his Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders, and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were brilliant, his walk stately, and his voice strong and well-toned.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thierry, _Koenig Attila und seine Zeit_; E. Hutton, _Attila and the Huns_.

ATTILLY, a village in France. See _Scarpe, Battle of the_.

ATTLEBOROUGH, a manufacturing town of the United States, in Massachusetts. Pop. 19,731.

AT'TOCK, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab, overhanging the Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River. It is at the head of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected with Lahore by railway. It is an important post on the military road to the frontier. Pop. 2822.

ATTOR'NEY, a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name of another. An attorney may have _general_ powers to act for another; or his power may be _special_, and limited to a particular act or acts. A special attorney is appointed by a deed called a _power_ or _letter of attorney_, specifying the acts which he is authorized to do. An _attorney at law_ is a person qualified to appear for another before a court of law to prosecute or defend any action on behalf of his client. The term in England was formerly applied especially to those practising before the supreme courts of common law at Westminster, and corresponded to the term _solicitor_ used in courts of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished in 1873, and _solicitor_ is now the regular term for all such legal agents. In the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America women are admitted as attorneys.

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer and legal adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and criminal proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a public character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and granting patents. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and, as a member of Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal questions. The Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in his place. In Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate. There are also Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he is head of the Department of Justice. The individual States have also an Attorney-General.