Chapter 2

Star anise has an aromatic taste, slightly bitter and acrid, and a very marked perfume of anise which with its star-like form gives the plant one of its names. It is a very useful stimulant, tonic, stomachic and carminative.

It is official in all Pharmacopoeias and the pericarp is the part employed.

The dose is from 1 to 2 grams to 100 of water in infusion, to be taken in one draught.

According to Schlegel it contains the following substances: An essential oil 4.675; a green waxy material which melts at 51°, a resin, a gum and saponin. The essential oil is (almost) identical with that of anise from which it is impossible to distinguish it chemically. The only difference is that the former has a blander odor and solidifies at 1°.25 instead of 10°, as does the oil of anise.

Botanical Description.--The plant grows in the mountains of Yunnan, China, and in Tonquin. The part used in the Philippines is the fruit, being indeed the only part known here. This is composed of 8 woody follicles arranged about a central column in the form of a star. These follicles open at maturity and reveal the seeds, which are shining, smooth, ovoid, hard, of a pretty chestnut-red color. In the Philippines they are sold even in the smallest food-vending shops.

_Michelia Champaca, L._

Nom. Vulg.--_Tsampaka_, _Sampaka_, Tag.; _Champaca_, Fil.-Span.

Uses.--The bark of the trunk is well known as a febrifuge and emmenagogue in India. It is slightly bitter and aromatic. Dr. H. Folliat has used it with success in the Island of Mauritius in the treatment of the common intermittent fevers; he administered the infusion (bark 30 grams, water 600 cc.)--or the decoction (bark 30 grams, water 1,200 cc.); boil till reduced to 600 cc.--giving a wine-glassful every hour just before and after the paroxysm.

An astringent decoction made from the leaves is used as a gargle in sore throat. The root is emmenagogue and the seeds are used in the treatment of anal fissure.

Dr. Hooper has found the following substances in the bark of the _Champana_: a volatile oil with a pine-like odor; a fixed oil, insoluble in alcohol, melting at 15° and forming soap with soda; a resin extremely bitter, acrid, brown in color; tannin; sugar; a bitter principle, albuminoids, coloring matters, mucilage and starch.

Botanical Description.--A tree 15-18° high; leaves alternate, 6 × 2', stipulate, simple. Flowers fragrant, saffron-colored, hermaphrodite, solitary and axillary. The receptacle, conical at its base, becomes narrow, lengthens and then enlarges, forming a column which is bare at its narrow part. At its base is inserted the perianth composed of 6 overlapping leaflets arranged in two series. Stamens indefinite, fixed in the base of the column of the receptacle on the superior portion of which are inserted the ovaries which contain many ovules arranged in two vertical series.

Habitat.--Common in all parts (of the islands).

ANONACEÆ.

Custard-Apple Family.

_Artabotrys odoratissimus_, R. Br. (_A. hamatus_, Bl.; _Uvaria Sinensis_ and _Unona uncinata_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Ilang-ilang de China_, Sp.-Fil.; _Alang-ilang Son-son_, Tag.

Uses.--A decoction of the leaves of this species is used to treat cholera in some of the islands of the Malay group; in the island of Java they use for the same purpose a decoction of the leaves of the species _A. suaveolens_, Bl., which is commonly called _Susong Damulog_ in the Pampanga dialect. The active principles of these plants are so powerful that one must beware of giving a large dose, as hemorrhages, nervous phenomena and abortion may follow.

Botanical Description.--A tree 15-18° high with leaves alternate, lanceolate, glabrous, and petioles very short. Flowers very sweet, axillary, solitary. Petals 6, fleshy, concave at the base. Stamens indefinite, closely packed, overlapping. Peduncle curved like a crook.

Habitat.--Cultivated in gardens.

_Anona squamosa_, L. (_A. tuberosa_, Rumph.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Ates_, Tag.; _Custard Apple_, Eng.

Uses.--The fruit of the mature ates is edible and is one of the most delicious that grows in the Philippines; its white and delicately perfumed pulp has a delicious flavor. The unripe fruit is exceedingly astringent. The fermented juice of the ripe pulp is used in certain parts of America to prepare a popular drink. The powdered seeds make a useful parasiticide especially when used on the scalp, but it is necessary to avoid getting any of the drug in the eyes on account of its irritant effect.

Botanical Description.--Tree 8 or 9° high with leaves alternate, oblong, the edges pubescent. Flowers greenish-yellow, axillary, solitary; peduncle not curved. Petals 6, convergent. Stamens crowded, indefinite. Fruit fleshy, covered with scales or rather rounded tubercles; beneath is the white and fragment pulp, covering the long-oval seeds.

_A. reticulate, L._

Nom. Vulg.--_Anonas_, Sp.-Fil.

Uses.--The fruit of this species is neither as much prized nor as abundant in the Philippines as that of the ates. When unripe it possesses the same properties as the latter. The large proportion of tannin which both species contain in their unripe state, makes them very useful in treating diarrhoea and dysentery. They are administered in the form of a decoction, by enema. The sap of the trunk is very irritating. The roots are used by the American Indians to treat epilepsy. Lemon juice is the antidote for the sap of this species.

I wish to call attention to the similarity of the common name of this plant to another entirely distinct species commonly used in the Tagalo therapeutics; namely, the _anonang_ (Cordia), with which it must not be confused.

Botanical Description.--Tree 10° high with leaves lanceolate, pubescent. Flowers in a sort of umbel. Corolla like that of _A. squamosa_. Fruit without the plainly visible tubercles of the foregoing species, their presence being merely suggested by a sort of net traced on the surface.

_A. muricata_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Guanábano_, _Goyabano_, Sp.-Fil.

Uses.--The ripe fruit possesses antiscorbutic properties; the unripe fruit is used in treating dysentery. It is said that the ripe fruit is used in diseases of the liver.

Botanical Description.--Tree with leaves oval, alternate and glabrous. Flower solitary, terminal, whitish. The fruit is much larger than that of the other species, is covered with scales that end in a soft point or thorn and has a very pronounced acid taste.

Habitat.--All three species are common in all parts of the Archipelago.

MENISPERMACEÆ.

Moonseed Family.

_Tinospora crispa_, Miers. (_Menispermum crispum_, L.; _M. rimosum_, Blanco; _Cocculus crispus_, DC.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Makabuhay_, Tag.

Uses.--Makabuhay is one of the most widely known and used plants in the Philippines; a sort of panacea applied to all bodily afflictions. Its Tagalo name means literally "you may live." A shoot deprived of roots and dropped in some moist place is soon covered with bright green leaves and adventitious roots. This peculiarity of the plant made it possible for me to take a large number of sprouts from Manila to Paris where they arrived perfectly fresh after a voyage of forty days, during which they lay almost forgotten in the ship and the cars.

The stem is the part employed in medicine. A decoction is given internally in the various forms of malarial fever and of dyspepsia. Externally it is most useful as a wash for ulcers of all kinds, rapidly improving their appearance.

In India the species _T. cordifolia_ is used; it differs but little from _T. crispa_. It is official in the Pharmacopoeia and has been introduced into Europe. _T. cordifolia_ has given excellent results in the mild forms of intermittent fever; in general debility following long and severe cases of illness; in chronic rheumatism, and in the second stage of syphilis. As the two species are so much alike we shall add the preparations and dose of _T. cordifolia_ which we have used on several occasions with good results.

Tincture of T. cordifolia.--Stems of the dried plant, 100 grams. Alcohol 21° (Cartier), 500 cc. Macerate seven days in a closed vessel stirring from time to time. After decanting add enough alcohol (21°) to bring the quantity up to 500 cc., and filter.

Dose.--4-8 grams.

Maceration.--Fresh stems cut in small pieces, 30 grams, water 300 grams. Macerate for two hours and filter.

Dose.--30-90 cc. a day.

Extract.--Dry makabuhay in small pieces 500 grams. Water 2 1/2 liters. Macerate for twelve hours, filter the liquid and express the macerated drug which is then macerated a second time in 2 1/2 liters of water. Express again, unite the two liquids and filter. Evaporate in a water-bath to the consistency of a pill mass.

Dose.--1/2-1 1/2 grams a day in fractional doses.

Botanical Description.--A vine whose runners entwine themselves among the tops of the highest trees, giving off many adventitious roots which seek the earth. The stem is covered with projecting tubercles. Leaves heart-shaped, pointed, entire with five well-marked nerves. Flowers yellowish-green, dioecious, growing in axillary racemes. The male flowers have a corolla of six petals, the three smaller ones arranged alternately. In the female flower the stamens are represented by three glands situated at the base of the petals. Fruit, an elliptical drupe.

_Anamirta Cocculus_, Wight & Arn. (_Menispermum Cocculus_, (L.) Blanco; _M. lacunosum_, Famk; _Cocculus lacunosus_, _C. suberosus_, DC.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Laktang_, _Liktang_, _Suma_, _Lanta_, _Lintang bagin_, _Tuba_, _Balasin_, _Bayati_, Tag., Vis., Pam.

Uses.--One of the uses to which the India berries (_Cocas de Levante_) are put in the Philippines, is to throw them into small sluggish streams or into lakes with the object of intoxicating the fish which soon come to the surface and float there as if dead. This custom is very extensive in Malaysia, in India and even in Europe, where, in order to avoid the cases of poisoning which this practice has occasioned in the consumers of fish taken in this way, it has been found necessary to forbid the sale of the berries except in the pharmacies. These restrictions are practiced in France.

In the Binondo market in Manila the root of this plant may be found in abundance; it is yellow and very bitter. The natives use the infusion (5-10 grams to 300 cc. of water) in fevers, dyspepsia and menstrual derangements. In India also the root is used in the same complaints.

The fruit contains the highly toxic principle _picrotoxin_, and others as follows:

_Menispermin_ (C_18_H_24_N_2_O_2_) is an alkaloid which crystallizes in pyramidal prisms, is soluble in alcohol and ether and insoluble in water. Hot nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid and a yellow substance of a resinous appearance.

_Picrotoxin_ (C_30_H_24_O_13_) is not an alkaloid as may be seen from its formula. Its properties are not well known at the present time. It crystallizes in small quadrilateral prisms, white and transparent, or in needles grouped in stars. No odor, taste bitter, insoluble in water, partly soluble in alcohol and in ether, freely soluble in acids and alkalies. A solution in concentrated sulphuric acid has a saffron-yellow color. Nitric acid transforms it into oxalic acid.

_Picrotoxinin_ exists in picrotoxin in the proportion of 32 to 100, and may be separated by boiling in benzine. It is bitter, poisonous, reduced by Fehling's solution and nitrate of silver. Sixty-six per cent. of _picrotoxin_ consists of another bitter substance, non-poisonous--_picrotin_, which is insoluble in benzine and is reduced by Fehling's solution and nitrate of silver. Lastly, _anamirtin_ is found in the mother water of picrotoxin; it is not bitter, not poisonous, and not reducible by the aforementioned reagents.

The fruit of the _anamirta_, the "coca de Levante" is an acrid, narcotic poison, which may not be employed internally; its uses are limited to external medication. In the Pharmacopoeia of India is given the formula for a parasiticide ointment, highly recommended in the treatment of pediculi:

_Unguentum anamirtæ_:

4 grams Cocculus berries, powdered, 30 grams Vaseline. M. Fiat unguentum.

In applying this ointment it is necessary to make sure that there is no wound or abrasion of the skin through which absorption might take place.

Botanical Description.--A vine with leaves alternate, entire, glabrous, broadly oval, pointed, with 5 nerves which unite at the base, long petioles. Flowers dioecious, in compound racemes. Male flowers consist of a perianth without corolla, the sepals arranged by threes in two or three whorls. The end of the receptacle expanded like a bead, bears a large number of stamens in 6 vertical series, with anthers sessile and 4-lobed. Female flowers analogous as regards the perianth, with 6-9 sterile stamens. Carpels formed of 5 ovaries, free, unilocular, containing one ovule each. Fruit, a drupe of a purple color, the size of a filbert, kidney-shaped, the albumen horny.

_Cissampelos Pareira_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Sansawsansawan_, Tag.; _Chinchaochinchauan_, Sp.-Fil.

Uses.--Although this plant formerly bore the Portuguese name of _Pareira brava_, the U. S. P. and B. P. recognize now under this title only the root of _Chondrodendron tomentosum_. It is diuretic and tonic and apparently exercises an astringent and sedative action upon the mucous membrane of the genito-urinary organs. The root is used in acute and chronic cystitis.

In Brazil it is used as a diaphoretic and as such is employed in cases of venomous snake bites. It is also used there as an emmenagogue and diuretic, in intermittent fevers, dropsy and suppression of the lochia in women recently confined.

It is official in the Pharmacopoeia of India.

Decoction.--Root of cissampelos, small pieces, 50 grams. Water 600 grams.

Dose.--30-100 grams.

Boil 15 minutes; filter and add enough water to bring the total bulk up to 600 cc.

Extract.--Root of cissampelos in powder 500 grams. Water 5 liters.

Dose.--.5-1 gram.

Digest the powder for 24 hours in 500 cc. water, pour the mixture into a filter and add water gradually until the percolate amounts to 5 liters. Evaporate the percolate in a water-bath to the consistency of a pill mass.

Fluid Extract.--This is prepared in the same manner as the extract and is allowed to remain in the bath until reduced in bulk to 400 grams. It is then removed and 100 grams of alcohol (36°) are added.

Dose.--1.75-7 cc.

Chemical Composition.--Flückiger has isolated a bitter principle analogous to berberin; also _buxine_ and _paracine_, which latter received the name _pelosine_ from Wiggers in 1839. The former chemist proposed the name buxine for all these analogous principles. Pelosine or buxine is precipitated by a concentrated solution of HCl, by sal ammoniac, by potassium nitrate and potassium iodide. He also discovered a neutral substance, _deyamitin_, which crystallizes in microscopic tablets; sulphuric acid added to these gives a pretty dark blue color which changes to green.

Botanical Description.--A climbing shrub with cylindrical woody stem, with leaves simple, alternate, entire, petiolate, ovoid, broad at the base. The inferior surface of the leaf is pubescent, especially in the intervals between the ribs. Flowers dioecious, small, racemose. Calyx of 12 sepals arranged in 3 whorls, the inner ones broad and petaloid. Corolla of 6 petals arranged in 2 whorls. Stamens sterile or rudimentary in the pistillate flower, the staminate flower bearing 6; anthers innate, 2-celled. Drupes oval, 2 or 3 cm. long, black, closely resembling a grape seed.

NYMPHÆACEÆ.

Water-Lily Family.

_Nymphæa Lotus_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Lawas_, _Talaylo_, _Tunas_, _Gaway-gaway_, Tag., Vis., Pam.; _Water Lily_, Eng.

Uses.--The anaphrodisiac virtues attributed to this plant and to all the water-lily family are purely imaginary. Its juice being slightly bitter and astringent is used in decoction as an injection in gonorrhoea. It possesses mild narcotic properties, for which some use the juice of the whole plant, rubbing the forehead and temples with it to produce sleep.

Botanical Description.--An aquatic plant, with leaves solitary, terminal, floating on the water, dentate, glabrous, broad, deeply cleft at the base, with a very long petiole. Flowers solitary, persistent in the ripe fruit, oval. Stamens indefinite in fine whorls or verticils.

Habitat.--Common on the shores of the Laguna de Bay.

_Nelumbium nucifera_, Gaertn. (_N. speciosum_, Willd.; _N. Asiaticum_, Rich.; _Cyamus Nelumbo_, Sm.; _C. mysticus_, Salis.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Bayno_, Tag.; _Sukaw_, Iloc.; _Sacred Lotus_, Eng.

Uses.--An infusion of the flowers is used internally in dysentery. In India they use, for diarrhoea and vomiting, the viscid juice obtained from the petioles and the peduncles of the flowers. The rootstock contains a large quantity of starch which has been utilized for food in the periods of famine which have desolated India and Egypt. This flower was the Sacred Lotus of the Egyptians and the people of India have dedicated it to Lakshmi, the goddess of health and prosperity.

Infusion.--Petals, dried 5 grams. Water 250 grams.

Sig. To be taken during 24 hours.

Botanical Description.--An aquatic plant with fleshy rootstock which creeps along the muddy bottoms; from its nodes spring the stalks of the leaves and flowers. Its leaves are alternate, polymorphous, some above and some below the surface of the water, concave in the center whence ribs separate, shield-shaped. Petioles very long, bearing soft, short spines. The flowers white or pink, solitary; peduncle long and, like the petioles, covered with soft, short spines. Calyx of 4-5 unequal sepals, imbricated. Corolla with an indefinite number of unequal petals, the inner ones shorter. Stamens indefinite, inserted in the base of the receptacle. Receptacle expanded above the androecium, in the form of an inverted cone, containing a large number of alveoli with circular openings.

PAPAVERACEÆ.

Poppy Family.

_Argemone Mexicana_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Kasubhang-aso_, Iloc.

Uses.--Padre Blanco says that the yellow juice of this plant "is used by the natives (Filipinos) to treat fissures of the corners of the eyes."

The negros of Senegal use the decoction of the root to cure gonorrhoea. The milky juice to which Blanco refers is used in different countries to treat various skin diseases, including the cutaneous manifestations of syphilis and leprosy; to remove warts, and as an eye wash in catarrhal conjunctivitis.

The English physicians of India state that it is dangerous to use the milky juice as an application to the eye, although Dymock claims the contrary.

The flowers are narcotic by virtue of a principle resembling morphine, perhaps identical with that alkaloid.

The seeds yield a fixed oil on expression, which is laxative and relieves the pains of colic, probably by virtue of its narcotic properties. Physicians in India praise this oil highly; not only is it a sure and painless purgative, but it is free from the viscidity and disgusting taste of castor-oil; besides it has the advantage of operating in small doses, 2-4 grams. Its activity is proportionate to its freshness. Dr. W. O'Shaughnessy does not value this oil highly, but the experience of many distinguished physicians of India has proved the purgative and other properties that have just been mentioned. Possibly the differences of opinion may arise from the fact that oils from different plants were used in the trials.

The seeds yield a fixed oil, yellow, clear, of sweet taste, density 0.919 at 15°; it remains liquid at -5°; is soluble in an equal volume of alcohol at 90°; characterized by an orange-red color on adding nitric acid. From its soap Frolicher has obtained acetic, valerianic, butyric and benzoic acids. Charbonnier claims to have found morphine in its leaves and capsules. Dragendorf has isolated from the seeds an alkaloid which presents the principal characters of morphine. It is, then, probable that morphine is the narcotic principle possessed by this plant, which is not hard to believe when one considers the family to which it belongs.

Botanical Description.--A plant of American origin nowadays acclimated in almost all warm countries. Its stem is green, pubescent, 30-40 centimeters high. Leaves alternate, thin, sessile, lanceolate, covered with rigid green thorns. Flowers hermaphrodite, terminal, yellow. Calyx, 3 sepals with conical points. Corolla, 6 rounded petals. Stamens indefinite, free, hypogynous. Ovary free, triangular. Capsule expanded, oblong, angular, thickly set with prickles: it opens inferiorly by 5 valves.

CRUCIFERÆ.

Mustard Family.

_Brassica juncea_, Hook. & Thom. (_Sinapis juncea_, L.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Mostaza_, Sp.; _Mustard_, Eng.

Uses.--The seeds are used in the same way as those of white or black mustard (_Sinapis alba_ and _S. nigra_, L.).

Botanical Description.--Plant with a glabrous stem, leaves sessile, glabrous, lanceolate, the upper ones serrate, the lower ones almost entire. Flowers in racemes. Calyx, 4 sepals. Corolla, 4 rounded, unguiculate petals. Stamens 6, two of them short and the other four longer and united in pairs. Ovary flattened. Seed vessel quadrangular, nodular, glabrous, containing many oval seeds.

_Raphanus sativus, L._

Nom. Vulg.--_Rábano_, Sp.; _Radish_, Eng.

Uses.--Used principally as food; it possesses the antiscorbutic properties common to the greater part of the Cruciferæ.

It is an herbaceous plant, the root of which is so commonly known that its description would be useless.

CAPPARIDACEÆ.

Caper Family.

_Cleome viscosa_, L. (_C. icosandra_, L.; _Polanisia viscosa_, DC.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Balabalanoyan_, _Apoyapoyan_, Tag.; _Wild Mustard_, Eng.

Uses.--The seeds possess the same properties as those of mustard and are used in place of the latter in Manila. In America the leaves are used as a poultice in otitis, their action being rubefacient. In India the seeds are given internally for their anthelmintic and carminative effect; the dose is one teaspoonful twice a day. The juice of the leaves mixed with cocoanut oil is used in the form of eardrops in suppurative otitis.

The natives give the same common name to the _Gynandropsis pentaphylla_, DC. (_Cleome pentaphylla_, L.; _C. altiacea_ or _C. alliodora_, Blanco), which is distinguished from the former by its six stamens inserted on the pistil and its violet-colored stem. Its therapeutic properties are identical with those of the _Cleome viscosa_. Dr. Sir W. Jones believes that the plant possesses antispasmodic properties, basing his belief on its odor, which resembles _asafetida_, though not so disagreeable. In India the juice of the leaves is a popular remedy for earache. It is also used there as a rubefacient.

Botanical Description.--An annual, the stem channeled and bearing glandular hairs. Leaves compound, alternate; leaflets lanceolate with glandular hairs. Calyx, 4 sepals. Corolla, 4 petals, yellow. Stamens 14-16, encircling the pistil. Seed vessels cylindrical, with channels and glandular hairs. The whole plant is sticky and emits a garlicky odor.

_Cratæva religiosa_, Forst.

Nom. Vulg.--_Salingbobog_, Tag.; _Balay-namuk_, Iloc.

Uses.--It is in common use in India as a tonic and stomachic. It seems also to possess laxative and diuretic properties. In Concan the juice of the leaves mixed with cocoanut oil is used as a liniment in rheumatism.

Infusion.--Leaves, fresh 50 grams. Water 500 grams.

Dose.--50-100 grams a day as a tonic or stomachic.