Chapter 3

Botanical Description.--A shrub 15-20° high with compound trifoliate leaves with long petioles; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate, smooth, dark green. Calyx of 4 imbricated sepals. Corolla of 4 unguiculate petals, between white and straw color, 1' long. Stamens indefinite, violet-colored. Ovary unilocular, many-ovuled. Berry spherical with many seeds buried in pulp.

Habitat.--Blanco has seen the plant growing in Ilocos and Imus.

BIXINEÆ.

_Bixa Orellana_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Atsuiti_, _Achuiti_, Tag.; _Achiote_, _Achuete_, Sp.-Fil.; _Annatto_, Eng.

Uses.--The principal use of the seeds is in cookery and everybody knows the yellow color which Filipino cooks impart to almost all their dishes. In medicine the fine powder that covers the seeds is used as a hæmostatic and internally as a stomachic. On account of the astringent qualities of the coloring matter it is used in some countries to treat dysentery, a fact which suggests its possible therapeutic or rather hygienic usefulness as a condiment. It seems to effect a cure in dysentery in the same manner as ipecac.

In India, Brazil and the Antilles the natives make a sort of paste of achuete known under the name of _rocu_. There is a hard, odorless form of rocu and another soft, unctuous, of a delicate red color and an odor rendered highly disagreeable by the urine added to it to keep it soft. Rocu is the preparation of achuete that has been subjected to chemical analysis. Its composition is as follows: Two coloring matters, _bixin_ (C_28_H_34_O_5_), of a red color, resinous, soluble in alcohol, ether, alkaline solutions and benzine, crystallizing in microscopic laminæ, quadrangular, red, of a metallic violet lustre; _orellin_, yellow in color, soluble in alcohol and in water.

Botanical Description.--A well-known tree growing to a height of 5-7 meters, with leaves alternate, simple, oval, heart-shaped at the base, sharply pointed, glabrous, short petioles. Flowers in panicles. Calyx, 5 rounded sepals, tuberculate at the base, imbricated, caducous. Corolla of 5 rose-colored petals. Stamens very numerous, free, inserted on the receptacle. Capsule round, dark red, bristling with stout hairs of the same color. The seeds are covered with a fine, yellowish-red powder.

_Pangium edule_, Reinw. (_Hydonocarpus polyandra_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Pangi_, Tag.

Uses.--All parts of this tree are anthelmintic. The seeds, fruit, leaves and bark all possess narcotic properties dangerous to man and the symptoms following an excessive dose are sleepiness, headache, a sort of intoxication or an attack of delirium that may end in death. These narcotic properties have been utilized in Java to stupefy the fish in the rivers by throwing the bark in the pools and quiet portions of the stream. The juice of the leaves is used in the treatment of chronic skin diseases. In Amboina the natives eat the seeds, the toxic quality of which is removed by brushing and macerating in pure water for a certain time. After such treatment they may be eaten with impunity and an oil may be extracted from them which is useful as a food.

Botanical Description.--A tree with leaves 5' long, alternate, ovate, broad, entire, glabrous, palmately nerved. Petiole long with 2 persistent lateral stipules. Flowers dioecious, the male ones in panicles, the female solitary. Calyx gamosepalous, dividing unequally when the flower opens. The male flower has a corolla of 5-7 petals, violet-colored, concave, half oval, with pubescent borders; at its base a flat scale. Stamens free, numerous, thick filaments, anthers bilocular. In the female flower the perianth is the same as in the former, the stamens sterile. Ovary unilocular, with 2-4 parietal placentæ with many ovules. Fruit as large as a man's head, with thin woody pericarp and many seeds embedded within its pulp.

PORTULACACEÆ.

Purslane Family.

_Portulaca oleracea_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Verdolagas_, Sp.; _Olasiman_, _Kolasiman_, Tag.; _Purslane_, Eng.

Uses.--The entire plant is edible, in the form of a salad or as a condiment with meat or fish. The leaves are succulent and acid, and the juice expressed from them is used as an eyewash to remove corneal opacities; it is also used in superficial erysipelas and other skin affections. The bruised leaves are used as a poultice for abscesses, contusions and on the temples for headache. The juice is given internally to check hæmoptysis and in diseases of the lungs and bladder; the seeds also are used in these complaints.

Botanical Description.--A plant with prostrate stem. Leaves fleshy, wedge-shaped. Flowers small, sessile, terminal, pale yellow. Calyx of 2 large teeth, deciduous. Corolla, 4-5 petals with a notch at the end. Stamens 9-14. Style of equal length with the stamens. Stigma in 4-6 divisions. The seed vessel, which dehisces horizontally, contains many small, heart-shaped seeds.

Habitat.--It grows in all parts of the islands.

GUTTIFERÆ.

Gamboge Family.

_Garcinia mangostana_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Mangostán_, Sp.; _Mangosteen_, Eng.

Uses.--The seed of the fruit is astringent and is given internally as an infusion in dysentery and chronic diarrhoea. The decoction is very useful as an injection in leucorrhoea.

The following potion has given excellent results to Dr. Ed. J. Waring in chronic dysentery and the diarrhoeas of tropical countries:

Dried peel of mangosteen 60 grams. Cumin seed 5 grams. Coriander 5 grams. Water 1,200 grams.

Boil till reduced to 600 grams. Take 120 grams twice a day. Tincture of opium may be added.

An analysis of mangosteen peel by W. Schmidt demonstrated a large quantity of tannin, a resin and a crystallizable principle named _mangostin_ (C_20_H_23_O_5_) which exists in the form of fine, golden yellow laminæ, tasteless, soluble in alcohol, ether and the alkalies, insoluble in water. With the perchloride of iron it gives a blackish-green color, and sulphuric acid colors it red.

Botanical Description.--The mangosteen grows only in the southern islands of the Archipelago and its delicious fruit is the part of the plant known in Manila. The peel is at the present time almost universally employed in medicine. The fruit is about the size of a small Manila orange, the pericarp a dark red or chocolate color, tough and thick, crowned with the remains of the calyx. On breaking it open the edible portion of the fruit is seen, consisting of 6-18 seeds covered by a white, sweet pulp, cottony in appearance, of a delicious slightly acrid flavor.

1. _Garcinia venulosa_, Choisy. (_Cambogia venulosa_, Blanco.) 2. _G. Cambogia_, Desrouss. (_Cambogia binucao_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Binukaw_, Tag., applied to both trees, though the first is also called _Gatasan pulá_ in Tagalo and _Taklang-anak_ in Pampango.

Uses.--The fruit of the second species, the true name of which is _binucaw_, is acid and edible. The fruit and the trunk of both species, when cut, exude a gum-resin very much like gamboge which is obtained from the _G. morella_ or _G. pedicellata_, Desr. These gum-resins, however, seem to be much inferior to gamboge; they contain an essential oil which does not exist in the latter and their color is paler.

Botanical Description.--The _G. venulosa_ is a tree with leaves opposite, lanceolate, acute, entire and glabrous, the inferior surface covered with nervelets which converge at the apex. Petioles short and flattened. Flowers tetramerous. Calyx, 4 persistent sepals. Corolla, 4 petals, overlapping, fleshy, ovate, of the same color as the calyx. Stamens numerous; no filaments; anthers round and very small. Style very short and thick, stigma peltate, divided into 10 parts. Fruit globose, depressed, no well-marked ridges when ripe.

_G. Cambogia_ differs from the foregoing in the leaves which present no nervelets on the lower surface and the fruit which presents 8 angles or rounded ridges.

Habitat.--Very common throughout the islands, abounding in the mountains of San Mateo and Morong. Blooms in August.

_Garcinia morella_, Desr.

Nom. Vulg.--I do not know the name given by the Filipinos to this tree, which Vidal and Soler have seen in Montalván, Tiwi (Albay) and San Mateo (Province of Manila); but it is highly important in medicine as the true gamboge is obtained from it. _Gamboge Tree_, Eng.

The Gamboge of the U. S. P. and B. P. is obtained from _G. Hanburii_ which differs somewhat botanically from _G. morella_.

Uses.--All parts of the plant contain a thick, yellow, milky juice which constitutes the gamboge. In Malabar, Ceylon, Canara and Singapore the following method of extraction is followed: At the beginning of the rainy season a spiral incision is made around the bark of about half the tree trunk, and a piece of bamboo is fixed in place to collect the juice which slowly exudes from the cut for several months, soon becoming viscid and then solid after contact with the air. One tree, as a rule, yields enough sap to fill three internodal segments of bamboo, each 50 cm. long by 3-5 cm. in diameter.

Gamboge is a laxative in doses of 10-15 cgm., produces abundant evacuations with violent colicky pains in doses of 30-50 cgm., and is an irritant poison in large doses. In other words it is a highly energetic hydragogue cathartic, especially indicated when we wish to drain off the fluid element of the blood, as in dropsy, asthma, pulmonary and cerebral congestion. It is also used as a vermifuge.

It is rarely given alone, but is combined with calomel, aloes, jalap, rhubarb, etc.

It is official in all pharmacopoeias.

Botanical Description.--A tree 10-20 meters high, with leaves opposite, elliptical, lanceolate, narrowed at both extremities, acuminate, entire, coriaceous, glabrous, 10-12 cm. long by 3-4 cm. broad, with short petioles. Flowers dioecious. Male flower axillary, solitary or in groups of 3-6, pedunculate with small bracts. Calyx, 4 sepals. Corolla, 4 petals, orbicular, thick, fleshy. Stamens 30-40, sessile, adherent at the base. Anthers unilocular. Female flower sessile, solitary, axillary, larger than the male; calyx and corolla equal; staminodia 20-30, jointed at the base, forming a membranous corolla from the upper edge of which spring a few short filaments which support each a suboval sterile anther. The ovary is superior and almost spherical, with 4 cells each containing 1 ovule. The fruit, almost spherical, is 2 1/2 cm. in diameter, corticate, bearing at its base the persistent calyx; each of its 4 cells contains a seed.

_Ochrocarpus pentapetalous_, Blanco. (_Tovomita pentapetala_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Namakpakan_, _Tagudin_, Iloc. (?).

Uses.--An oil expressed from the fruit is used in Ilocos for illuminating purposes. The flowers are astringent and are used in infusion in cases of diarrhoea. The oil of the fruit is also used locally in rheumatism, tumefactions and other painful conditions. In some countries of Malaysia the oil is used in the same way especially in beriberi and the periarticular inflammations incident to puerperium.

Botanical Description.--Straight trunk about 8' in diameter, with milky sap. Leaves 1 1/2' long, sessile, opposite, ovate, expanded, minutely notched and glabrous, with a small downy swelling at the base, superior and glued to the branch. Flowers terminal, in racemes, with opposite pedicels. Calyx white, of 2 rounded leaflets bent downwards. Corolla white, 5 petals (not 4), oval, concave, twice as long as the calyx. Stamens numerous, joined to the receptacle. Filaments slightly longer than the corolla. Anthers oval, 2-celled. Ovary superior, oval. Style longer than the stamens. Stigma peltate, sometimes bilobed, sometimes 4-lobed. Fruit about the size of an acorn, oval, fleshy, containing a milky juice; it is 2-celled and each cell contains a solitary, hard seed; of these one aborts.

Habitat.--It grows near the sea. Blooms in December.

_Calophyllum Inophyllum_, L.

Nom. Vulg.--_Palo Maria_, Sp.-Fil.; _Bitanhol_, _Tamawian_, _Dankalan_, _Dinkalin_, Tag.; _Dankalan Bitaog_, Vis., Pam., Bik.

Uses.--From the seeds of the fruit there exudes a yellowish-green oil, bitter and aromatic. It is used in some districts for illuminating purposes. Its density is 0.942 and its point of solidification 5° above zero. In India it is used by inunction in rheumatism and in the Philippines locally over the stomach in indigestion and colic. The bark of the tree when incised exudes a green resin of a very agreeable odor, which is used as an application to wounds and old sores. In India it is used in the same way. This resin is fusible and dissolves completely in alcohol. It has been mistaken for the _tacamahaca_ of India, which, however, is a product of the _C. calaba_, L. Mixed with equal parts of pitch and wax it is applied to the chest as a plaster in bronchitis. A decoction of the leaves is used for purulent ophthalmia in some parts of India and Mauritius. The pounded bark is applied locally in orchitis and epididymitis. We have had occasion to use a mixture of equal parts of the resin with white vaseline spread on linen and applied between the shoulder blades; in the persistent cough of senile bronchitis the relief was marked.

Botanical Description.--A large tree with beautiful, dark green leaves 4-5' long, opposite, entire, large, oval with nerves numerous, fine and perpendicular to the midrib. Petioles very short. Flowers large, white, sweet-scented, axillary, in racemes of 7-9. Calyx white, of 4 sepals. Corolla white, of 4 petals. Stamens numerous, polyadelphous. Ovary rudimentary in the male flower; unilocular and uniovulate in the female. Style single and large. Drupe superior, with a hard, bony pit, containing a thicker, softer substance which envelopes a seed of like consistency.

Habitat.--It is found in central Luzon and in the Provinces of Tayabas, La Union and Ilocos. Blooms in November.

_Mesua ferrea_, L. (_Calophyllum apetalum_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Malabukbuk_ (?), Tag.

Uses.--We do not know to what use the Filipinos put this plant, but in India the sweet flowers are dried and sold in the bazars under the name of _Nag-Kasar_ or _Nagesur_, which is used as a mild stimulant, but especially as a perfume.

A dark oil is expressed from the seeds, its density 0.954 and its solidifying point 5° above zero. In northern Canara it is used locally in rheumatism. The incised root bark exudes a resinous sap which is a good bitter tonic. The infusion of the wood is equally good. The dried flowers, finely powdered and mixed with oil or lard make a useful ointment for acute hemorrhoids. The fruit is acrid and purgative.

Botanical Description.--A tree with leaves long-petioled, oblong, lanceolate, acuminate, rounded at the base, thick, coriaceous, upper surface lustrous, lower surface greenish or covered with a waxy, ash-colored powder. Flowers terminal or axillary, solitary, yellowish. Calyx 4 imbricated sepals, orbiculate, slightly pubescent. Corolla 4 persistent petals, wedge-shaped, short, with rounded points. Stamens indefinite, free, in 5-6 series. Ovary free, 2-celled, each cell containing 2 ovules. Style bilobed. Fruit nearly unilocular, ovate, acuminate, encompassed at its base by the sepals, the lower part of the petals, and crowned by the style. Pericarp woody, dehiscent at the tip by 2-4 valves; contains 1-4 seeds, slightly orbiculate, coriaceous.

Habitat.--Common in the forests.

DIPTEROCARPEÆ.

_Dipterocarpus turbinatus_, Gaertn. (_D. Indicus_, Bedd.; _D. Mayapis_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Mayapis_, Tag.; _Gurjun_, _Kanyin_, Indo-Eng.

Uses.--This tree yields an oleo resin, used in medicine and known under the name of _bálsamo de gurjun_. Other species of _Dipterocarpus_ (_D. alatus_, Roxb.; _D. incanus_, Roxb.; _D. trinervis_, Bl., etc., etc.) produce the same substance. Balsam of Gurjun is a stimulant of the mucous membranes, especially those of the genito-urinary tract, and is diuretic. It is also indicated in bronchial catarrh and as a local application in ulcer. The first to recommend the use of gurjun as a substitute for copaiba was Sir W. O'Shaughnessy in 1838, and in 1852 this property was confirmed by Waring with highly satisfactory results. Dr. Enderson of Glasgow employed it in cases that received no benefit from copaiba, giving a teaspoonful t. i. d. in emulsion. Dr. Rean also classed it as equal to copaiba in efficiency.

The daily dose ranges from 5-20 grams, in liquid or pill.

The following is an excellent formula for an emulsion:

Cinnamon water 125 grams. Sodium carbonate, crystals 2 grams. Balsam of gurjun 25 grams. Syrup of gum 25 grams. Sulphuric ether 2 grams.

Mix and shake.

Dose.--6-12 large spoonfuls each day, for the declining stage of gonorrhoea.

In Burmah they extract the balsam by the following method: A large hole is cut in the trunk of the tree and a fire is built in this cavity and kept up till the wood of the trunk begins to burn, by which time the oleo resin has collected in abundance in the segments of bamboo placed to receive it. When the exudate diminishes, fire is again placed in the cavity and one tree may tolerate 2, 3 or even 4 of these cavities. The exudate on standing separates into 2 parts; a solid called "guad" which forms the lower layer, and a supernatant liquid which is the balsam. It is dense, viscid and very fluorescent; opaque and gray-green by reflected light. It has an odor similar to that of copaiba, is bitter and aromatic. Its density is 0.964. It is soluble in benzine, in bisulphuret of carbon, chloroform, the essential oils and less so in ether and acetic acid. It becomes turbid and coagulates if it be kept at 100° for some time and it solidifies at 200°, while copaiba remains liquid at this temperature.

A specimen of the balsam examined by Flückiger consisted of 54.44 parts semifluid resin and 45.56 volatile material. Upon distillation it yields an essential oil, of slight odor, straw-colored; formula C_20_H_32_ (Werner). If purified its density is 0.915. It is soluble in amylic alcohol, scarcely so in absolute alcohol. Hydrochloric acid colors it a beautiful blue. The resin remaining after distillation, dissolved in alcohol 0.838 with the addition of ammonia, yields as a precipitate a crystalline acid (gurjunic acid), C_44_H_64_O_8_, soluble in alcohol 0.838, in ether, in benzol and bisulphide of carbon. It melts at 220° (Werner), solidifies at 180° and is decomposed at 260°.

Botanical Description.--A very large, handsome tree with leaves about 5' in length, alternate, ovate, broad and lanceolate, entire, glabrous and membranaceous. Petioles very short. Flowers terminal, paniculate, handsome, fragrant. Calyx free, 5 lanceolate sepals, of which 2 are slightly longer than the others. Corolla, 5 yellow oblong petals longer than the sepals. Stamens numerous, attached to the receptacle. Filaments very short. Anthers of 2 divisions each ending in a long beard. Ovary half buried in the receptacle. A single thick style. Three simple stigmas. Seed vessel of 3 cells, seeds in pairs.

Habitat.--In Luzon in the mountains of Tala, Angat and San Mateo; in Mindanao, Paragua, Balabac and Negros. Blooms in June.

MALVACEÆ.

Mallow Family.

_Sida carpinifolia_, L. (_S. acuta_, Burm.; _S. stipulata_, Cav.; _S. frutescens_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Wawalisan_, _Eskobanghaba_, _Pamalis_, _Higot-balato_, _Mamalis_, Tag., Vis., Pam.

Uses.--The root is emollient and bitter. The decoction is used as a lotion for ulcers, and internally as a sudorific and tonic-astringent. The physicians of India prescribe the powdered root with milk for fevers and for nervous and urinary diseases. The leaves are used locally in ophthalmia.

The juice of the root is employed as a wash for all kinds of sores and ulcers and the juice of the entire plant is given for spermatorrhoea. After experimenting with the root, the compilers of the Bengal Dispensatory announced their uncertainty as to whether or not it possessed antipyretic properties; however, they pronounce it diaphoretic, an exciter of the appetite and an excellent bitter tonic. In Goa the Portuguese consider it diuretic and use it especially in rheumatic affections.

The root of _S. carpinifolia_ gives a blue color with the salts of iron. It does not precipitate gelatin and contains asparagin.

Botanical Description.--A plant 2-4° high with woody, branching stem, leaves alternate, oblong, pointed, serrate, under surface neither hoary nor tomentose as in some other species of _Sida_. Petioles very short, curved near the leaf, 2 stipules near the base. Flowers axillary, solitary. Calyx simple, in 5 parts. Corolla, 5 petals notched obliquely. Stamens numerous, inserted on the end of a column. Anthers globose. Styles 5, mingled with the stamens. Stigmas globose. Cells of the same number as the styles, verticillate, with solitary seeds.

Habitat.--Common in Luzon, Panay, Mindanao, Paragua, Cebú and Balabac.

_Abutilon Indicum_, Don. (_Sida Indica_, L.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Kuakuakohan_, _Giling-gilingan_, Tag.; _Tabing_, _Malis_, _Dulupag_, _Pilis_, Vis.; _Malvas de Castilla_, Sp.-Fil.

Uses.--The trunk bark is slightly bitter, and in decoction is used as a diuretic. An infusion of the leaves and flowers is used as an emollient in place of mallows. The infusion of the root is used for the same effect, as a lotion or injection. I have often had occasion to employ this plant and would never use the _Philippine mallow_ in place of it.

Botanical Description.--A plant 3-4° high, all its parts covered with hairs, simple and tomentose. Leaves heart-shaped, angular, obtuse, unequally serrate, smooth, soft, the lower surface hoary and bearing 9 well-marked nerves. Petioles longer than the leaves, with 2 stipules at the base. Flowers yellow, axillary, solitary. Peduncles long, with a node near the end. Calyx, 5 sepals, as in all the Malvaceæ. Corolla, 5 petals with a small notch at the end. Stamens very numerous as well as the styles. Both arise from the summit of a very short column and twist in all directions forming a tassel or tuft. Fruit much higher than the calyx, of 10-20 cells or carpels which are broad, compressed, hairy, the walls united toward the center, each containing 2-3 seeds.

Habitat.--Common in Luzon, Panay, Mindanao and other islands. Blooms in September.

_Urena sinuata_, L. (_U. morifolia_ and _muricata_, DC.; _U. multifida_, Blanco.)

Nom. Vulg.--_Kulutan_, _Kulutkulutan_, _Molopolo_, Tag., Vis., Pam.

Uses.--The infusion of the root is used internally as an emollient and refrigerant; externally in skin diseases accompanied by smarting and inflammation. The boiled and pounded leaves are used as a poultice in inflammation of the intestines and bladder.

Botanical Description.--A spreading plant 4-6° high, with straight stem, leaves cleft at the base, serrate and hairy; the larger ones have 5-6 lobules which subdivide into smaller ones and bear a small gland in the inferior surface of the midrib. Petioles short. Flowers terminal and racemose. Calyx double, composed of 5 narrow sepals externally, and 5 colored sepals internally alternating with the outer ones. Corolla, 5 petals. Stamens numerous, inserted about a small column. Styles 10, on the end of the column. Stigmas thick, covered with little spheres. Five united carpels, kidney-shaped, bristling with short stiff hairs, containing solitary seeds.

Habitat.--Common in all parts of the Archipelago.

_Hibiscus Abelmoschus, L._

Nom. Vulg.--_Kastuli_, _Kastio_, _Kastiogan_, _Dalupan_, Tag.; _Marikum_, _Dukum_, _Marukum_, _Marapoto_, Vis.; [2] _Marsh Mallow_, Eng.

Uses.--The bruised seeds emit an odor of musk, and for this reason the plant has received the name _Kastuli_, signifying musk in Sanscrit. They possess antispasmodic and stimulant properties, and the infusion is diuretic. Bonastre [3] analyzed Kastuli seeds as follows: