Part 5

In countries whose lakes and rivers are fed from snow-clad mountains and glaciers, it is observed that their waters find their greatest diminution in winter, when a portion of their supply is temporarily suspended in the form of ice. This phenomenon became unusually intensified in Switzerland during the winter of 1853-4, so much so, that the level of its lakes had sunk lower than had ever before been known. Some of the inhabitants of the village of Ober-Meilen, on the east shore of Lake Zürich, took advantage of this circumstance to extend their vineyards, by recovering portions of the exposed shore, which they enclosed with stone walls, and filled in the space with mud, so as to bring its surface above the ordinary level of the lake. In the course of these operations the workmen came upon the heads of wooden piles around which were portions of stags' horns, stone hatchets and other implements (=Fig. 1=), which excited some curiosity among them. The event, however, was not singular in the district, as objects of a similar character were on several occasions encountered along the shore of the lake; and even in this same spot, in 1829, when the little harbour of the village was being deepened, bits of rotten piles, as well as implements of stone and horn, were turned up among the dredged stuff. They were not, however, deemed of sufficient value to be rescued from the mud, so that, along with it, they were carried away and re-deposited in deep water. Also at Männedorf, a village a few leagues farther up the lake, during the winter of 1843-4, while its harbour was being enlarged, similar discoveries were made. A few of the relics were on this occasion collected and sent to the Museum at Zürich, where they are still to be seen. Indeed, these, and other recorded instances of antiquarian remains being fished up or dredged from the Swiss lakes, are by no means exceptional events; but, however suggestive they may now appear, they all failed to excite in the minds of their beholders that great deduction which will for ever associate the name of Keller with the lake-dwellings of Europe. On this occasion the schoolmaster of the village of Ober-Meilen, Mr. Æppli, whose house was close by, considered the find of sufficient importance to be brought under the notice of the Antiquarian Association at Zürich, which he accordingly did in the month of January, 1854. Thus it was that Dr. Keller appeared on the scene. From the investigations which subsequently ensued the following general facts were ascertained.

(_a_) _Composition of Lake-bed._--First, or uppermost, there was a stratum of yellowish mud, from 1 to 2 feet thick, mixed with rounded pebbles, and in all respects similar to what was being deposited in the shallow indentations of the lake in the vicinity. Beneath this was a deposit of blackish mud, mixed with decayed organic matter, and varying in thickness from 2 to 2½ feet, in which the tops of the piles appeared and all the relics were found. The third stratum was in composition somewhat similar to the first, and, like it, with the exception of the deeply penetrating piles, was devoid of antiquarian remains.

(_b_) _Disposition of the Piles, etc._--The exact dimensions of the area occupied by the piles were not determined, but it appeared to be considerable, and to stretch along the shore within a few fathoms of the ordinary water-mark. The piles were made of different kinds of wood--oak, beech, birch, and fir being the most prevalent--and they varied in thickness from 4 to 6 inches. Sometimes entire stems were used, but more frequently they were split into halves or quarters. They were about 1½ foot apart, and had a kind of systematic arrangement in rows parallel to the beach. Some piles were pulled up, and their tips were found to have been pointed by blunt tools, the cuts of which were, in the estimation of experienced carpenters who had examined them, precisely similar to those which would be made by those very stone implements collected around them.

(_c_) _Relics._--The relics were of a mixed character, and included the following:--Stone celts and chisels, some of them being still fixed in their horn handles and fastenings (=Fig. 1=, Nos. 3, 4, 11, and 15); perforated hammer-axes (Nos. 8, 13, and 17); mealing-stones and polishers (No. 12); various implements made of flint, as scrapers, flakes (No. 1), saws (No. 2), and some rude arrow-points (only one being neatly finished, No. 16); various objects of horn and bone (Nos. 6 and 7); also some wooden clubs, fragments of pottery, spindle-whorls (No. 14), shells of hazel-nuts, etc. Among the relics then collected were a bead of amber (No. 9) and a bronze armilla (No. 10).

After careful consideration of the facts thus brought to light, Dr. Keller came to the conclusion that the piles had formerly supported a wooden platform, that on this platform huts had been erected, and that, after these had been inhabited for a long period, the whole structure had been destroyed by fire.

A knowledge of these discoveries at Ober-Meilen, and of Dr. Keller's opinion in regard to them, soon spread among the surrounding inhabitants, the immediate result of which was a sudden crop of lacustrine explorers, who carried on a vigorous search for similar remains in this and the adjacent lakes. For their guidance were requisitioned all sorts of traditions, stories of submerged cities, of which many abounded, recollections of the occasional finding of implements and weapons of unusual types, etc.; but of greatest service was the local knowledge of fishermen, who, from practical experiences of disasters to their nets and fishing gear, could at once point out numberless localities where large fields of submerged piling were to be found. In the spring of the same year the celebrated station known as the Steinberg, at Nidau, in Lake Bienne, was discovered, as well as numerous other stations in the lakes of Bienne, Neuchâtel, and Geneva; so that before an illustrated account of the Ober-Meilen discovery could appear in the Transactions of the Antiquarian Society of Zürich Dr. Keller had important materials of a similar character from other localities to record. This report, entitled "Die Keltischen Pfahlbauten in den Schweizerseen," appeared towards the close of the year 1854, and at once attracted the attention of archæologists in all countries. Since then lacustrine investigations in search of lake-dwellings have been incessantly carried on, not only in Switzerland, but in many other countries in Europe, with the result that each year has seen an increase in their number, as well as a corresponding enhancement of the archæological value of the materials so discovered.

Prominent among the early investigators whose names have a claim to be associated with this great discovery which has so popularised the name of the Zürich antiquary were Colonel Schwab, of Bienne, whose splendid collection of lake-dwelling antiquities now adorns his native town; Professor Desor, author of the admirable little treatise "Les Palafittes, ou Constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchâtel," and other works; and Professor Troyon of Lausanne, whose work, "Habitations lacustres des temps anciens et modernes," is so well known. But foremost among them all stood Keller himself, who from time to time, according to the demands of fresh discoveries, issued systematic reports of the Pfahlbauten, of which no fewer than six had appeared previous to the year 1866. In that year was published the English edition of Keller's reports, arranged and translated by Mr. Lee. It is needless to pursue here any further in historical order the various means, whether as publications or investigations, by which Keller's discovery was being pursued, as they come to be dealt with elsewhere. Suffice it to say that within a few years of its publicity, the existence of lacustrine villages all over Central Europe in prehistoric times was fully established.

From these remarks you will have some idea of the work before us in these lectures. It contemplates a critical and summary review of the principal results of the investigations of the lake-dwellings of Europe during the last half-century. This embraces a large geographical area, extending, roughly, from Ireland to Bulgaria, and from Venice on the Adriatic to the shores of the Baltic. Of the very numerous researches to which I shall have to refer, some were conducted by private individuals, others by public or scientific bodies, but all presumably more or less qualified to give a correct report of the facts. The records of successive discoveries have been generally published in the proceedings of local societies, but sometimes in separate monographs of extremely limited circulation. As to the antiquities, some have found their way to dealers, and have disappeared to foreign lands. A large proportion, however, have been carefully preserved in the respective districts or countries in which they were found, and are now located in public museums or private collections, where, as a rule, they are intelligently arranged and duly labelled. In conducting you, as it were, over this wide area, amidst such diversified materials, I shall be guided, to a certain extent, by geographical convenience, even at the expense of historical sequence; and in discussing typical finds I shall, as far as this may be practicable, make use of diagrammatic and pictorial illustrations, believing that even a poor illustration often conveys more information than the most accurate description.

LAKE ZÜRICH.

Further discoveries in Lake Zürich were not so speedily effected as in some of the other Swiss lakes, and for a few years the interest in this subject was transferred to more distant localities. In the following year, 1855, Colonel Schwab visited Zürich and made further researches at Männedorf and Ober-Meilen. From the latter he succeeded in securing a considerable number of objects, especially stone hatchets, some of which were made of nephrite, and a bronze celt of the flat type (=Fig. 1=, No. 5).

In 1858, in the course of some dredging operations for the purpose of deepening the mouth of the Limmat, fragments of pottery, bits of piles, and some peculiar beams having one or two square-cut holes (=Fig. 2=, Nos. 13 and 14) were dredged up. Dr. Keller recognised here the site of a Pfahlbau which extended both under the little island called Bauschanze and outwards towards the lake. (B. 22 and 336.)

Two other localities near the outlet known as the "Kleiner Hafner" and "Grosser Hafner" were also proved to have been stations. The former was opposite the north end of the Tonhalle, and about 150 yards distant from the original shore. It occupied a circular area of about 1½ acre in extent and, when the water was low, its surface was only some 3 feet submerged. The Grosser Hafner was farther off in the lake, and its area was considerably larger than that of the Kleiner Hafner. On a clear day in both these localities stones and the tops of piles could be seen. Another locality known to Dr. Keller at this early period was about two miles from Zürich, on the west shore of the lake and just opposite the steamboat pier at Wollishofen. Here the lake-bed consisted of a deposit of fine mud, and owing to the constant commotion made by the steamers in passing to and fro the _débris_ of the lake-dwelling had been greatly covered up. (B. 336.)

As the Kleiner Hafner lay directly along the course followed by the steamers, and greatly obstructed their passage, the authorities, in 1867, resolved to have the obstruction removed altogether. For this purpose a dredging machine was used, by means of which a segment several feet thick was removed from its surface. During this operation the same kind of perforated beams which had already attracted attention at the Bauschanze were turned up among the stuff, together with numerous objects of flint, stone, bone, etc., similar to those at Ober-Meilen (=Fig. 2=, Nos. 9 to 17). In addition to these, however, there were bronze axes of the winged type, some spoon-shaped crucibles, large clay rings and fragments of pottery of an unusually fine kind (=Fig. 2=, Nos. 1 to 8). But, what was considered still more strange, there were among these relics some iron weapons and Roman tiles.

Hitherto there was little or nothing done to the Grosser Hafner, and the "Haumessergrund" at Wollishofen, and so the surmises of Dr. Keller regarding them might have died with him, had it not been for the extraordinary exertions of the people of Zürich to have their beautiful environments made still more attractive by art. These extensive alterations, begun some six years ago, and scarcely yet completed, have so entirely changed the aspect of the shore in the immediate neighbourhood of the outlet, that visitors whose recollection of the town dates farther back than these transformations, will hardly recognise the locality. A splendid bridge now spans the opening of the Limmat, and on both sides of it are elegant promenades, gardens, and ornamental quays, which occupy what was formerly part of the lake. The filling up of such a great area of lake-bottom involved the use of dredgers, which, with revolving buckets, raised stuff from the most convenient shallows along the shore, and having dropped it into boats, it was then transported to its final destination. Among the localities selected for these operations were the Grosser Hafner and the outskirts of the Bauschanze. The rich loamy deposits of the Haumessergrund at Wollishofen were also found suitable for mixing with the gravel and for forming a good soil for the floral and horticultural gardens which now form such a conspicuous ornament to the fashionable walks along the northern shore of the lake.

The Grosser Hafner[1] supplied a wonderful medley of antiquarian objects, apparently of all ages--stone hatchets (one of which was 10 inches long), horn handles, bone implements, etc. Among bronze objects were: hatchets of the winged type, chisels, sickles, knives some ornamented with half-circles, points, and lines (=Fig. 2=, Nos. 30 and 35); pins with large heads, oval or round, and sometimes perforated and variously ornamented (Nos. 24, 25, and 26); arm-rings, both closed and open, and ornamented with engraved lines, dots, etc. (Nos. 18 and 28); a few spirals (No. 34), small rings and pendants (Nos. 19 and 27); two solid rings attached by a band (No. 29); a group of four rings--one being larger, on which the other three were hung (No. 20); a pin-like object, 15½ inches long, with a handle like that of a sword (No. 32); lance-heads, some of which were ornamented; a few small beads of amber. Among the fragments of pottery were two vessels complete with round bases (No. 31), and part of a moon-shaped crescent, rudely ornamented with depressions like finger-marks.

Here, again, as in the Kleiner Hafner, objects apparently of a later date were found, among which were Roman tiles, pottery of the kind known as _terra sigillata_, and an iron spear-head; also upwards of 16 coins of the time of Augustus, Tiberias and Vespasian.

On the other hand, at the Bauschanze, while objects of the stone age were very numerous, there were scarcely any of bronze. Most of the objects collected on this station were dispersed; but among the few that have come to the knowledge of antiquaries are some remarkable implements of horn, like picks, said to be field-hoes (Nos. 21 and 22). One of these is 14½ inches long, pointed at one end and chisel-shaped at the other. Another (10½ inches long) is also pointed at one end, but forked at the other. Both are perforated with an oval hole for the insertion of a wooden handle.[2]

WOLLISHOFEN.--The greatest of all the finds in Lake Zürich was that at Wollishofen. (B. 448, 449a, and 462.) Here, again, the dredging machines brought up a large quantity of wood, among which were some of those peculiar oak beams with square-cut holes, already noticed (=Fig. 2=, Nos. 13 and 14). The wood was of various kinds, and so abundant that the poorer people were in the habit of collecting it for firewood. Although the antiquities of the stone age were numerous, the great feature of this station is that it belonged to, or at least existed during, the most flourishing period of the bronze age. Notwithstanding pilfering, and the difficulty of detecting the smaller objects, the collection, as now deposited in the Museum at Zürich, must be considered one of the most important in the whole series of lake-dwelling researches. Among the more remarkable objects were the following:--

_Weapons._--Four bronze swords, one only of which is complete (=Fig. 3=, No. 1); its entire length is 28½ inches, including the handle, which is also of bronze (barely 4 inches long), and to which the blade is attached by two rivets; another (No. 2), which is defective both in the blade and handle, is of a different type, especially in the formation of the handle, which was intended to have bone or wooden plates fastened with rivets to the remaining bronze portion; it is ornamented with a combination of circles or semicircles, in incised lines or dots. Three daggers, two of which have rivet-holes, and the third has what appears to be the remains of a tang. Eleven arrow-heads of bronze, and several of flint and bone. Of the former, two only have sockets (Nos. 4 and 14), the others being imitations of the ordinary flint forms (Nos. 3 and 5). Lance-heads were in much larger numbers than either the swords or daggers; they are mostly socketed, with side rivet-holes for fixing the handle; they vary in length from 3½ to 8 inches, and are sometimes ornamented, as shown in No. 7, and only two had tangs. Portions of wood are supposed to be fragments of bows.

_Industrial Implements and Ornaments._--The stone hatchets are exceedingly well-made, and appear to have been partly sawn from water-worn boulders of serpentine and hornstone. None were of _nephrite_ or _jadeite_; a few of horn have been noted (=Fig. 185=, No. 15). The bronze hatchets (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 16, 20, and 25) were numerous, the greatest number having four wings and sometimes a loop at the side; the direction of the cutting edge is generally at right angles to that of the wings, but in a few instances parallel to it (as in No. 16); at the top of the hatchet there is a hole or small recess. Of the flat kind there were a few, one of which is here figured (No. 25). Two small ones are of copper (=Fig. 3=, No. 17). The knives are mostly ornamented with running patterns or circles or semicircles in dots or lines, and the blades are all more or less curved (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 11 to 15); the handles were sometimes solid and of a piece with the blade, but more frequently they were of horn or wood, and attached by tangs or rivets. It is rather remarkable that amongst the large number of knives collected at Wollishofen there is not one of the socketed kind, which, as we shall afterwards see, are so frequently met with in Lake Bourget and some stations in western Switzerland. Some sickles of the usual type, fish-hooks, and a few of the socketed razor knives. Of bronze hammers there are six, all of which are socketed and either round or rectangular in shape (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 8 and 18). The round one, No. 8, is ornamented with a series of circular grooves, and has a socket 1¾ inches deep; it weighs 490 grs.

There is a considerable number of chisels and gouges (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 1 to 7), small tubes, broad-headed nails and studs. One bronze punch is bifurcated (_Antiqua_, 1886, Pl. v. Fig. 8). An elegant vase of solid bronze (=Fig. 3=, No. 22), and fragments of large situlæ, made of thin bronze plates riveted (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 17 and 22). One of the most remarkable objects is that represented on =Fig. 4=, No. 21, which is supposed to be an anvil. Several long pins with sword-like handles, similar to one found on the Grosser Hafner (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 9 and 10). Bronze hair-pins were so numerous that they are to be counted by hundreds in the Museum (=Fig. 3=, Nos. 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 19 and 23 to 26). One bronze comb and one bronze fibula (=Fig. 3=, Nos. 16 and 20). Bracelets are well represented, both closed and open; they are either flat or in solid mass (=Fig. 3=, No. 13), and generally ornamented; one (No. 15), open at the ends, is made of two stout wires, one of which is spirally grooved, and the other plain; these wires are united at the ends by a tin pin, which passes through a loop formed by the recoil of the ends of the wires. A large hollow ring (three inches internal, and rather more than four inches external diameter) is highly ornamented. (See =Fig. 188=, No. 2.) Finger-rings (=Fig. 3=, No. 28), pendants (Nos. 29, 30, and 31), buttons (No. 21), studs (No. 27), a so-called _portemonnaie_, for ring money (No. 33), portions of girdles (=Fig. 4=, No. 19). There are also one ringlet of gold and three beads, one of amber and two of glass. Amongst the nondescript objects are several small wheels--three of pottery (=Fig. 5=, No. 6), five of bronze (=Fig. 3=, Nos. 12 and 18), and two of tin (No. 32)--a leaden weight, which has a high loop of bronze (=Fig. 4=, No. 23). An object of the same kind (No. 24), with two loops, was found at Onnens. Besides the two copper celts (=Fig. 3=, No. 17) there were two small copper awls and several bits of this metal.

_Pottery._--The pottery at Wollishofen shows vessels made of two kinds of paste, one fine, and the other coarse containing a mixture of rough sand. The vessels varied much in size, the smallest being only about one inch in diameter, and the larger ones, judging from the curve of the fragments, ranged from sixteen to twenty-seven inches in diameter. They had no glaze, nor can it be said that the wheel was used in their manufacture, although some are very symmetrically shaped. No quartz or sand was mixed with the fine paste, of which the more ornamental vessels were made (=Fig. 5= Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 11, and 12). Some had a conical-shaped base, and could only be made to sit in soft material, such as sand, or by means of a ring, like those figured from the Kleiner and Grosser Hafner. One small vessel was trilocular, having its three chambers or bowls attached to one common base. Some very flat vessels were found, which are supposed to have been lids (=Fig. 5=, No. 7). Spindle whorls of burnt clay variously ornamented (=Fig. 5=, Nos. 13 to 20), and some other objects like modern thread pirns (Nos. 5 and 10) are in abundance. Portions of six crescents are all differently ornamented. Some now in the Museum have been restored, so as to show their original form and ornamentation, and it is from one of these that the illustration here given was taken (=Fig. 5=, No. 8). Some dishes took the forms of animals, as in No. 4, and were probably used as lamps.

Among other objects may be mentioned some bits of red stone, supposed to have been used as paint; foundry materials, as moulds and bronze dross; portion of a dug-out canoe; various bits of sawn and cut horn; etc.

_Human Remains._--The only portion of a human skeleton was a skull, which, according to Dr. Kollmann, is of the mesocephalic type. (B. 420, p. 90.)

_Organic Remains._--Wheat, millet, hazel-nuts, and crab-apples, were identified.