CHAPTER IX. BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN CULTURE

[b] A. H. LAYARD, _Nineveh and its Remains_.

[c] HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, “The Influence of Modern Research on the Scope of World History,” Prefatory Essay in Volume III of the New Volumes of the Ninth Edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[d] DIODORUS SICULUS, _The Historical Library_ (translated from the Greek by G. Booth).

[e] EDUARD MEYER, _Geschichte des Alterthums_.

[f] EDWARD HINCKS, from an article “On the Assyrio-Babylonian Measures of Time,” in Volume XXIV of the _Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy_, 1874.

[g] JOACHIM MENANT, _La Bibliothèque du Palais de Ninive_.

[h] C. P. TIELE, _Babylonisch-Assyrische Geschichte_.

[i] G. NAGEL, in _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_, Vol. IV.

[j] M. MONTGOMERY, _Briefe aus der Zeit Hammurabis_.

[k] C. JOHNSTON, in the “Epistolary Literature of the Assyrians and Babylonians” in the _Journal of the American Oriental Society_, Vol. XVIII.

[l] FRIEDRICH DELITZSCH, article “Beiträge zur Erklärung der babylonisch-assyrischen Brieflitteratur” in _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_, Vol. I.

[m] F. LENORMANT, _Histoire ancienne de l’Orient_.

APPENDIX A. CLASSICAL TRADITIONS

[b] ISAAC PRESTON CORY, _Ancient Fragments_.

[c] DIODORUS SICULUS. _The Historical Library_, (translated from the Greek by G. Booth).

[d] CLAUDIUS ÆLIANUS, _The Variable History of Ælianus_ (translated from the Greek by A. Fleming).

APPENDIX B. EXCAVATIONS IN MESOPOTAMIA AND THEIR RESULTS

[b] A. H. LAYARD, _Nineveh and its Remains_.

[c] F. HOMMEL, _Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens_.

[d] R. W. ROGERS, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_.

[j] HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, _The History of the Art of Writing_.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MESOPOTAMIAN HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR EDITORIALLY CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT HISTORY, WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

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=Ælianus=, Claudius, The Variable History of Ælianus. Translated by A. Fleming. London, 1576.--=Ainsworth=, W., Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea. London, 1842; Chaldeans of Central Kurdestan.--=Amiaud=, A., in de Sarzec’s Découvertes en Chaldée. Paris, 1814, 2 vols.; (in collab. with =F. Scheil=) Les inscriptions de Salmanasar. Paris, 1890.--=Aures=, A., Traité de métrologie assyrienne. Paris, 1891.

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=Babelon=, E., Manuel d’archéol. orientale. Paris, 1888.--=Bertin=, G., Babylonian Chronology and History. London, 1892; The Pre-Akkadian Semites. London, 1886.--=Bewsher=, Lieut., Mesopotamia: Sheriat-el-Beyta to Tell Ibrahim.--=Bezold=, C., The Tell-el-Amarna Tablets in the British Museum. London, 1892; Catalogue of the Cuneiform Tablets in the Kuyunjik collection in the British Museum. London, 1889; Überblick über die babylonisch-assyrische Literatur. Leipsic, 1886.--=Billerbeck=, A., Susa. Leipsic, 1893.--=Birch=, S., Records of the Past. London, 1873, 12 vols.--=Bonavia=, E., Flora of the Assyrian Monuments. London, 1894.--=Boscawen=, W. St. C., Lectures on the History of Assyria. London, 1886; Assyria and Babylonia. London, 1836.--=Botta=, P. E., and =Flandrin=, E., Monuments de Ninive. Paris, 1849-1850, 5 vols.

_Paul Émil Botta_ was born at Turin December 6, 1802, and died at Achères, near Poissy, France, March 29th, 1870. He was French consul at Alexandria, and in 1842 was transferred to the office of vice-consul at Mosul, of which he was the first titulary consul. In December, 1842, he studied the tumulus which covered the right bank of the Tigris opposite Mosul; superficially explored Kuyunjik; and then at Khorsabad discovered (from March to October, 1843) the remains of the town and palace of Doursaryonkin, founded by Sargon II, king of Assyria. The objects found during these discoveries were transported to France in 1846, and form the main contents of the Musée Assyrien of the Louvre.

=Brandis=, J., Über den historischen Gewinn aus der Entzifferung der Assyr. Inschriften. Berlin, 1856.--=Brown=, F. T., Assyriology. New York, 1885.--=Bruce=, P., Three Inscriptions of Nabopolassar, King of Babylonia, B.C. 625-604; In Amer. Jour. of Sem. Lang., vol. 16, p. 178. Chicago, 1900.--=Brünnow=, R. E., Classified List of All Simple and Compound Cuneiform Ideographs. Leyden, 1887-1889.--=Bruston=, C. A., Les inscriptions assyriennes et l’Ancien Testament. Paris, 1875.--=Budge=, E. A. W., Babylonian Life and History. London, 1884; The History of Esar-Haddon. London, 1880; Annals of Shalmanasser II, Sennacherib and Assurbani-Pal. London, 1880; A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiq. of the British Museum. London, 1900.

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=Cara=, P. C. de, Gli Hethei-Pelasgi. Rome, 1895.--=Cartwright=, J., Travels through Syria, Mesopotamia, etc. London, 1911.--=Cassas=, L. F., Voyage Pittoresque en Syrie. Paris, 1799.--=Cavaniol=, H., Les monuments en Chaldée, en Assyrie et à Babylone. Paris, 1870.--=Clercq=, L. de, Antiquités assyriennes. Paris, 1888.--=Cloquet=, L., L’art monumental des égyptiens et des assyriens. Paris, 1896.

* * * * *

=Delattre=, A. J., Esquisse de géographie assyrienne. Paris, 1883; Les inscriptions historiques de Ninive, etc. Paris, 1879; L’Asie occid. dans les inscriptions assyriennes. Brussels, 1885; L’assyriologie depuis onze ans. Paris, 1891; L’exactitude en histoire d’après un Assyriologiste. Louvain, 1888.--=Delitzsch=, Friedrich, Die Entstehung des ältestens Schriftsystems. Leipsic, 1897; Handel, Recht und Sitte im alten Babylonien (in Velhagen and Klasing’s Monatshefte, Jahr. 13, Vol. II, p. 47. Berlin, 1899); Assyrische Studien. Leipsic, 1874.

_Friedrich Delitzsch_, the son of Franz Delitzsch, was born at Erlangen, September 3, 1850. Professor of Assyriology in the University of Berlin, he devoted himself to the study of Assyriology, and attained a wide reputation as an Assyriologist. He was appointed Professor of Assyriology at the University of Leipsic. His writings have been mostly upon the subject of Assyria and ancient Assyrian life, and he has made some translations from the works of other historians, notably George Smith’s _Chaldean Account of Genesis_. He made a deep sensation in Germany in 1902 by his lecture on “Babel and the Bible,” in which he pointed out the similarity of the story of Moses in the bulrushes to the ancient legend of the birth of Sargon I, king of Babylon; noted the Babylonian custom of resting every seventh day, the word being shabattu (whence Sabbath), and many other points in which the Babylonian influence is shown in the Bible.

=Dieulafoy=, J., La Perse et la Chaldée. Paris, 1887.--=Diodorus=, S., The Historical Library, London, 1700.--=Duncker=, M., Geschichte des Alterthums. Leipsic, 1878, 6 vols. English translation: The History of Antiquity. London, 1880, 6 vols.

* * * * *

=Edwards=, C., The Witness of Assyria. London, 1893.--=Epping=, C., Astronomisches aus Babylon. Freiburg, 1889.--=Evans=, G., An Essay on Assyriology. London, 1883.--=Evetts=, B. T. A., Cylinders of Sennacherib. London, 1889; Inscription of the Reign of Evil-Merodach, Neriglissar and Laborosoarchod. Leipsic, 1892.

* * * * *

=Feer=, H. L., Les Ruines de Ninive. Paris, 1864.--=Ferguson=, J., The Palaces of Niniveh and Persepolis Restored. London, 1857.--=Fontane=, M., Histoire Universelle. Paris, 1881-1889, 6 vols.

_Marius Fontane_ was born at Marseilles, September 4, 1838. He was destined to follow a commercial career, and was sent by a French house in Marseilles to represent it in the Orient. While there he was brought into relations with M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, and became his private secretary. Through the efforts of M. de Lesseps, Fontane was successively associated as secretary-general to the Suez and Panama Canal Companies. M. Fontane was early drawn into literary work, and in spite of his official duties found time to devote much attention to political economy, religion, learning, and history in all its branches. In his Universal History he devotes much space to questions of race and primitive religions in the historical evolution of humanity. Marius Fontane has come into prominence largely through his writings on the subject of history, but also through his explorations in the countries lying about the Isthmus of Suez.

=Fradenburg=, J. N., Fire from Strange Altars. Cincinnati, 1891.--=Fraser=, J. B., Mesopotamia and Assyria, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. New York, 1892.

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=Gatschet=, A. S., Historic Documents from the XIVth Century B.C. (In Amer. Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 121. Washington, 1897.)--=Ginzel=, F. K., Die astronomischen Kentnisse der Babylonier und ihre culturhistorische Bedeutung. Leipsic, 1901.--=Goss=, W. H., Hebrew Captives of the Kings of Assyria. London, 1890.--=Guyard=, S., Mélanges d’Assyriologie. Paris, 1883.--=Goodspeed=, George S., A History of Babylonia and Assyria. New York, 1903.

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=Halévy=, J., Documents religieux de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1882; La nouvelle évolution de l’accadisme. Paris, 1878; Aperçu grammatical sur l’allographie assyro-babylonienne. Paris, 1885; Essai sur les inscriptions du Safa. Paris, 1882; Recherches critiques sur l’origine de la civilisation babylonienne. Paris, 1876.

_Joseph Halévy_, of Jewish origin, was born at Adrianople, December 15, 1827. He came to study at Paris, and became a naturalised Frenchman. In 1868 he visited northern Abyssinia to study the Jewish religion of the Falashas. (The Falashas are a Hamitic tribe which professes the Jewish religion, and claims descent from Hebrew immigrants who followed the queen of Sheba.) In 1869 he was sent to Yemen on a mission of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. He remained there two years, and brought back six hundred and eighty-three Sabaic inscriptions. In 1872 he received a gold medal from the Société de Géographie and the Volney prize from the Institut. He afterwards became Professor of Ethiopian at the École pratique des hautes études. He was one of the most active collaborators in the _Journal Asiatique_, and wrote frequently on the most disputed questions concerning the philology and the archæology of the East to the Académie des Inscriptions. His theories as to the origins of the Mesopotamian peoples and languages made a profound impression on all the scholarly world, and while they have met with bitter opposition they are entitled to all the consideration that is due to such deep and tireless research.

=Harkness=, M. E., Assyrian Life and History. London, 1883.--=Harper=, R. F., Assyrian and Babylonian Letters. London, 1892-1902, 8 vols.--=Havet=, E., Mémoire sur la date des écrits. Paris.--=Heeren=, A. H. L., Historical Researches, etc. Oxford, 1839, 2nd ed., 5 vols.--=Hegel=, G. W. F., Lectures on the Philosophy of History. London, 1857.--=Helm=, O. (in collab. with =Hilprecht=, H. V.), Chemische Untersuchung von altbabylonischen Kupferund Bronze-Gegenständen und deren Alters-Bestimmung (in Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop. Verh.). Berlin, 1901.--=Herder=, J. G. von, Outlines of the Philosophy of History of Man. London, 1803, 2 vols.

_Johann Gottfried von Herder_ was born at Mohrungen, East Prussia, August 25, 1744. His education was mostly private. His first writings appeared when he was about twenty years of age. His first considerable work, _Fragmente über die neure deutsche Literatur_, appeared in 1767. This work attracted the favourable attention of Lessing, and made him widely known. In 1776 he obtained the post of upper court preacher and upper member of the Consistory at Weimar. At this post he passed the rest of his life. “He possessed a power of intuition which must be considered in many cases as prophetic, and which made him a pathfinder whose traces are followed up to the present day.” His _Study of the Philosophy of History_ will naturally be compared with the work on the same subject by his contemporary Hegel. It created almost a furor of excitement in its day, and may still be read with interest and profit by every earnest student of history. Its essential attitude of mind appears peculiarly archaic in our day, evidencing the utterly changed point of view from which history is regarded in our generation. Herder, like most other philosophical historians of his time, saw everywhere the hand of God in history, and was firmly imbued with the idea that all human events were but the working out of a divine plan, the broad outlines of which had been fully revealed to man. The modern historian tries to be a scientist rather than a philosopher, and he finds scant proof of this basis on which Herder worked, but views or attempts to view the course of world-history as a candid or impartial investigator of facts and of rational human motives, feeling by no means sure that he grasps the full import of any metaphysical theological bearings of these facts and motives, if such there be. Yet for this very reason the writings of Herder have a peculiar value, as they not alone evidence the mental grasp of the age in which they were written, but serve at the same time to point out a significant difference between that time and our own.

=Herodotus=, The History of Herodotus. London, 1806, 2nd ed., 4 vols.--=Heuzey=, L., Un palais chaldéen. Paris, 1888. La construction du roi Our-Nina d’après les levés et les notes de M. de Sarzec (in Rev. d’Assyr. et d’Archéol., vol. 4, p. 87. Paris, 1898).--=Hilprecht=, H. V., The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania (Old Babylonian Inscriptions), Am. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia, 1896; Recent Researches in the Bible Lands. Philadelphia, 1896; The Recent Excavations of the University at Nippur (in Univ. of Pennsylvania Bul., vol. 2, p. 87, and vol. 3, p. 373, Philadelphia, 1899).

_Hermann Hilprecht_ was born at Hohenerxleben, Germany, June 28, 1859. He is at present professor in the University of Pennsylvania. Professor Hilprecht was interested from the outset in the expedition of the University of Pennsylvania to Babylonia, to which we have more than once referred. At a later stage he was curator and scientific director of the expedition, in which Mr. Haynes had charge of the field-work, 1893-95 and 1897-1900, after Dr. Peters’ retirement. Though he spent but a month in actual field-work, he spent several years in working up at Constantinople or Philadelphia the ample supply of materials which the various expeditions procured, and his results, as published from time to time, have been noted everywhere as distinct and important additions to our technical knowledge of Assyriology. The greatest popular interest in these discoveries perhaps grows out of the light that they throw on the extreme antiquity of Babylonian history. Dr. Peters and Professor Hilprecht both assure us that the secure records gained by the excavations of Nippur carry the history of Babylonia back to a period at least a thousand years earlier than the date ascribed by Archbishop Usher’s long-famed chronology for the creation of the world, and Professor Hilprecht’s latest investigations justify the belief that the earliest records from Nippur are not newer than the year 7000 B.C.

=Hincks=, E., On the Assyrio-Babylonian Measures of Time. Dublin, 1874.--=Hird=, W. G., Monumental Records. London, 1889.--=Hoefer=, J. C. F., Mémoires sur les ruines de Ninive. Paris, 1850.--=Hommel=, F., Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. Berlin, 1885; Semitische Völker und Sprachen. Leipsic, 1881; Abriss der babylonisch-assyrischen und israel. Gesch. Leipsic, 1880; Der babylonische Ursprung der aegypt. Kultur. München, 1892.

_Fritz Hommel_ was born at Ansbach, July 31, 1854. Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Munich. Professor Hommel is a distinguished member of that band of German students who have made orientalism their life-work. His particular studies have had to do chiefly with the Semitic race. His history of Babylonia and Assyria is one of the most recent and certainly among the most comprehensive and authoritative works on the subject that have yet been written. As Professor Hommel is yet a comparatively young man, he very naturally belongs to the advanced school of Assyriologists, and his work may be looked to with confidence for an expression of the furthest present advance of research. In particular, Professor Hommel is distinguished as an ardent champion of the Babylonian or Chaldean origin of the Phœnician alphabet in opposition to the theory of de Rougé, which ascribed to it an Egyptian origin. Most of Hommel’s publications are to be had only in the original German.

=Howorth=, H. H., The Early History of Babylonia (in Engl. Hist. Rev., vol. 13, pp. 1, 209, vol. 14, p. 625, vol. 16, p. 1); On the Earliest Inscriptions from Chaldea (in Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archeol., vol. 21, p. 289, London, 1899).

* * * * *

=Jastrow=, M., The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria. Boston, 1898; Nabopolassar and the Temple to the Sun-god at Sippar (in Amer. Jour, of Sem. Lang.; Chicago, 1899, vol. 15, p. 65).--=Jensen=, P., Kish (in Ztschr. für Assyriologie; Berlin, 1901, vol. 15): Assyrisch-babylon, Mythen und Epen (in Keilschrftl. Bibl.; Berlin, 1900, vol. 6): Die Cosmologie der Babylonier. Strassburg, 1890.--=Johnson=, C., The Fall of the Assyrian Empire (in studies in honour of B. L. Gildersleeve; Baltimore, 1902, p. 113): The Fall of Nineveh (in Amer. Orient. Soc. Journ.; New Haven, 1901, vol. 22, pt. 1, p. 20).--=Justinius=, Justin’s History of the World. London, 1875.--=Jeremias=, A., Hölle und Paradies bei den Babyloniern. Leipsic, 1900.

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=Kaulen=, F., Assyrien und Babylonien, nach den neuesten Entdeckungen. Freiburg, 1891, 4th ed.--=Kennedy=, J., Early Commerce of Babylonia with India, etc. London, 1898.--=King=, L. W., Babylonian Religion and Mythology, London, 1899; Letters and Inscriptions of Hammurabi, etc. London, 1898-1900, 3 vols.

_Leonard William King_ was born in London, December 8, 1869, and educated at Rugby and King’s College, Cambridge. As assistant in the department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquity of the British Museum, he has made very extensive studies in the literature of Babylonia and Assyria. He has collected and arranged many series of cuneiform inscriptions, besides adding much to the literature on both Babylonia and Assyria. His writings are for the most part rather technical.

=Kinns=, S., Graven in the Rock. London, 1891.--=Knudtzon=, J. A., Assyr. Gebete an den Sonnengott. Leipsic, 1893, 2 vols.--=Kohler=, J., and =Peisser=, F. E., Aus dem babylonischen Rechtleben. Leipsic, 1890.--=Koldewey=, R., in Zeitschrift für Assyriologie. Dec., 1887.--=Krall=, J., Grundriss der altorientalischen Geschichte. Wien, 1899.--=Krüger=, J., Geschichte der Assyrier und Iranier, vom XIII, bis zum V. Jahrh. v. C. Frankfurt, 1856.

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=Langlois=, V., Le Dunuk-Dasch, tombeau de Sardanapale à Tarsovo (in Rev. Archéol.; Paris, 1853, vol. 10).--=Laurent=, A., La Magie et la Divination de l’Orient. Paris, 1894.--=Layard=, A. H., Nineveh and its Remains. London, 1849, 2 vols.; Nineveh and Babylon. London, 1853; Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia. London, 1887; Monuments of Nineveh. London, 1849-1854.

_Sir Austin Henry Layard_ was born in Paris, of English parentage, March 5, 1817. He spent the years of his early youth in Florence. On returning to England he began the study of law. In 1839 he took an extended tour, chiefly within the Turkish Empire. Here he learned Persian and Arabic. In 1842 he spent some months in exploring the antiquities of southwestern Persia. It was during this expedition that he became interested in the excavations being made at the supposed site of Nineveh by M. Botta. In 1845 he returned to Mosul and began his series of researches. The material that he gathered in this expedition greatly enriched the oriental department of the British Museum; and by means of the cuneiform inscriptions found the ancient oriental history was completely reconstructed. In 1852 he made a second series of excavations in Assyria, adding largely to his former discoveries. The same year he was elected to Parliament. In 1854 he visited Crimea, witnessing some battles there. He was chosen lord rector of Aberdeen University in 1855, and in 1866 became a trustee of the British Museum. Shortly after this he was elected foreign member of the Institute of France. In 1869, Ambassador to Spain; in 1878, to Constantinople. He died July 5, 1894. The name of this famous Englishman will always be indelibly associated with the origin of the science of Assyriology. To Layard it was chiefly due that the once famous but long almost forgotten city of Nineveh was exhumed and its buried treasures given to the world. The story of these exhumations is a part of the history of Assyria-Babylonia, and has already been told.

=Lehmann=, C., Altbabylon, Maass und Gewicht. Berlin, 1889; Beiträge zur alten Geschichte. Leipsic, 1901; Shamasshumukin, König von Babylonia, 668-669 v. C. Leipsic, 1892; Zwei Hauptprobleme der altorientalischen Chronologie und ihre Lösung. Leipsic, 1898.--=Lenormant=, F., Les dieux de Babylone et de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1877; Lettres assyriologiques, 2nd series; Études accadiennes. Paris, 1879-1880; Chaldean Magic: Origin and Development. London, 1877; Premières civilisations. Paris; in collab. with =Chevalier=, E., A Manual of the Ancient History of the East. London, 1869-1870, 2 vols.; in collab. with =Babelon=, E., Histoire ancienne de l’Orient. Paris, 1881-1886.

_François Lenormant_ was born in Paris 17th January, 1837; died there 10th December, 1883. His education was private. Early in life he showed a special aptitude and liking for the study of the oriental languages. He travelled extensively in Egypt, Turkey, and Greece, and became prominent for his researches in the Accadian languages. In 1874 he was appointed Professor of Archæology at the Bibliothèque, Paris. The son of an archæologist of distinguished merit, Lenormant grew up in an atmosphere of scholarship, and early evinced a keen taste for all that pertained to archæology. He entered the field of Assyriology in its infancy, and soon became known as a leader among the masters in that field, and his early death was regarded everywhere as one of the severest blows which oriental archæology could have received. Lenormant was regarded by his fellow-workers as having a peculiar genius for his task, and his taste for literary work was no less keen than his scholarship. The fact that his great work on Oriental History was at once translated into English vouches for its popular interest. Unfortunately he did not live to complete his still more important work on the same subject, to which the last years of his life were devoted.

=Lincke=, A. A., Bericht über die Fortschritte der Assyriologie, 1886-1893. Leipsic, 1894.--=Lindl=, E., Die Datenliste der ersten Dynastie von Babylon; in Beiträge zur Assyriologie. Leipsic, 1901.--=Loftus=, W. K., Chaldea and Susiana. London, 1857.--=Lotz=, W., Die Imschriften Tiglathpileser I. Leipsic, 1880.--=Lyon=, G., Keilschrifttexte Sargon’s, Königs von Assyrien, 722-705 v. C. Leipsic, 1883.

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=Maccalester=, S. H., Babylon and Nineveh. Boston, 1892.--=Macphail=, S. E., Monumental witness to Old Testament History. London, 1879.--=Martin=, G., La campaigne de Sennakerib en Palestine, etc. Montauban, 1892.--=Martin=, F., Textes religieux assyriens et babyloniens. Paris, 1900.--=Maspero=, G. C. C., Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1886; The Struggle of the Nations. London, 1896; The Dawn of Civilisation. London, 1897; Life in Ancient Assyria. London, 1892.--=Meissner=, B., Beiträge zum altbabylonischen Privatrecht. Leipsic, 1893.--=Menant=, J., Babylone et la Chaldée. Paris, 1875; Découvertes assyriennes. La Bibliothèque du palais de Ninive. Paris, 1880; Empreintes de cachets assyrio-chaldéens relevés au Musée britannique sur des contrats d’intériet privé. Paris, 1883; Les pierres gravées de la Haute-Asie. Recherches sur la glyptique orientale. Paris, 1883, 1886; Les noms propres assyriens; recherches sur la formation des expressions idéographiques. Paris, 1861; Hammourabi (King of Babylon) Inscriptions. Paris, 1873; Les langues perdues de la Perse et de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1890; Annales des rois d’Assyrie. Paris, 1874; Ninive et Babylone. Paris, 1888; Les fausses antiquités de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1888.

_Joachim Menant_ was born at Cherbourg, France, 16th April, 1820. The life of this famous orientalist furnishes yet another illustration of the practical man of affairs who finds also time for the most abstruse scholarship. Throughout a long life until 1890, when at the ripe age of three score years and ten, he was retired with the title of Honorary Councillor. Menant lived the practical everyday life of a magistrate, and practised this profession with such assiduity and judgment as to attain the highest distinction. Yet, at the same time, he found leisure hours enough to make himself everywhere recognised as one of the most accomplished of Assyriologists. A comparatively young man, when the discoveries of Botta and Layard and their successors first brought the Assyrian treasures to the attention of the world, Menant seemed from the very first to have been seized with a desire to investigate the strange inscriptions from Nineveh. He was among the first who undertook the investigation of the strange cuneiform writing and from then till now he has kept well in the van of the constantly growing company of Assyriologists. The list of his works is little more than a succession of papers on one or another of the subjects most intimately connected with this field. Most of them are of a technical character, and, therefore, have necessarily appeared only to a limited audience. In one or two instances, however, and notably in the case of the little book on the library of Asshurbanapal, he has descended to the popular level, and has shown himself capable of handling the most abstruse topics in a way to make them delightfully interesting to the least scholarly of readers. Strange to say, this beautiful little book has never been hitherto translated into English, and a like neglect has attended nearly all the other publications of the author. It is difficult to find an explanation of this neglect unless it be the author’s well-known attitude towards the status of the ancient Hebrew records. On more than one occasion he has expressed the opinion that to single out the Jews among the peoples of antiquity as the one important race of their time is wofully to distort the perspective of history. Needless to say such an opinion as this throws one counter to the prejudices of a large proportion of people, including the mass of Assyriologists among the rest.

=Ménard=, L., Histoire des anciens peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1883.--=Meyer=, E., Geschichte des Alterthums. Stuttgart, 1884, etc., 5 vols., in progress.--=Monaco=, A., Orientalia. Rome, 1891.--=Muecke=, Ch., Von Euphrat zum Tiber. Untersuchungen zur alten Geschichte. Leipsic, 1899.--=Mueller-Simonis=, P., Relations des missions scientifiques. Washington, 1892.--=Mürdter=, F., Gesch. Babyloniens und Assyriens. Stuttgart, 1891.

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=Niebuhr=, B. G., Lectures on Ancient History. London, 1852, 2 vols.--=Niebuhr=, M., Geschichte Assurs und Babels. Berlin, 1854.--=Niebuhr=, C., Die erste Dynastie von Babel (in Vorderasiat. Ges. Mitt., vol. 3, p. 43). Berlin, 1897; Studien zur Geschichte des alten Orientes. Leipsic, 1894; Die Chronologie der Geschichte Israels, Aegyptens, Babyloniens und Assyriens von 2000-700 v. Chr. Leipsic, 1895.--=Nikel=, J., Herodot und die Keilschriftforschung. Paderborn, 1896.

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=Oppert=, J., Babylone et Chaldée. Paris, 1874; L’immortalité de l’âme chez les Chaldéens. Paris, 1875; The Real Chronology of the Babylonian Dynasties. London, 1888 (in collab. with J. =Menant=); Documents juridiques de l’Assyrie et de la Chaldée. Paris, 1877; Histoire des empires de Chaldée et d’Assyrie. Versailles, 1865 (in collab. with J. =Menant=); Fastes de Sargon. Paris, 1863; Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie. Paris, 1859-1863, 2 vols.; Fragments mythologiques. Paris, 1882; Fragments de cosmogonie chaldéenne. Paris, 1879; La fixation de la Chronologie des derniers rois de Babylone. Paris, 1893; La condition des esclaves à Babylone. Paris, 1888; Les inscriptions assyriennes des Sargonides et les fastes de Ninive. Paris, 1863.

_Jules Oppert_ was born at Hamburg, 9th July, 1825. Professor Oppert is a German by birth but a Parisian by adoption. His whole oriental studies have been not alone made in Paris, but many of them under the direct auspices of the French Government, so that Frenchmen are perhaps justified in claiming him almost as a fellow-countryman. Professor Oppert has that comprehensive scholarship which is characteristic rather of the German than the Frenchman. He is a philologist and linguist of the broadest type. Unfortunately for the general public the German cast of his mind shows itself still further in his apparent contempt for the literary graces. He is a scholar who works for scholars, and it is but seldom that he has written anything which comes well within the grasp of the general public. His is, therefore, a name which one meets everywhere in pursuing the literature of Assyriology, but the results of whose investigations must usually come to the general reader, as it were, through an interpreter.

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=Peiser=, F. E., Keilinschriftliche Aktenstücke. Berlin, 1890; Studien zur Oriental. Alterthumskunde. Berlin, 1897. (In Vorderasiat, Ges. Mitt. 1897, 4 vols.); Babylon, Verträge. Berlin, 1890; A Sketch of Babylonian Society (in Smithsonian Institute. Annual Report, 1898. Washington, 1899).--=Perrot=, G., A History of Art in Assyria. London, 1884.--=Peters=, J. P., Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures, etc. New York and London, 1897, 2 vols.; Some Recent Results of the University of Pennsylvania, Excavations at Nippur (in Amer. Jour. of Archeol., vol. 10, pp. 13, 352, 439, Princeton, 1895); The Seat of the Earliest Civilisation in Babylon and the Date of its Beginnings (in Amer. Orient. Soc. Jour., New Haven, 1896).

_Dr. John Punnett Peters_ was formerly professor of Hebrew in the University of Pennsylvania; at present rector of St. Michael’s Protestant Episcopal Church, New York City. For more than a generation after the discoveries of Botta and Layard and their successors in Mesopotamia had been furthered by companies of English and French and German explorers, America had taken no part in the work, but in 1880, the University of Pennsylvania determined to make amends for this neglect by sending out a fully equipped exploring party. The leader of this movement, and the man who personally conducted the explorations of the first two years in the field, was Professor J. P. Peters. Through his energetic efforts the numberless difficulties that such an enterprise involves were overcome, and some most important discoveries were made. The chief of these was the location of the Babylonian city of Nippur, the site of that ancient temple of Bel, which was, as Dr. Peters points out, to many generations of old Babylonians and Assyrians what the temple of Jerusalem has been to the peoples of Christendom. His discoveries at Nippur have added greatly to the work that has been carried on at Babylon and Nineveh, and “helped to carry our knowledge of civilised man two thousand years farther back than was known less than half a century ago.” At Nippur he discovered what is probably the oldest known temple in the world. Both his expeditions met with very bitter and determined opposition from government officials and wandering inhabitants in the vicinity of Nippur, and it is mainly due to his fearless determination that successful excavations were finally made.

=Pinches=, T. G., Religious Ideas of the Babylonians. London, 1893; Notes. London, 1892; Sumerian or Cryptography (in Royal Asiatic Soc. Jour.; 1900, p. 75, 1900); The Babylonian and Assyrian Cylinder-Seals of the British Museum (in Jour. Brit. Archeol. Assoc.; vol. 41, p. 396, London, 1885). The Bronze Gates of Balawat in Assyria (in Jour. Brit. Archeol. Assoc.; vol. 35, p. 233, London, 1879); The Temples of Ancient Babylonia (in Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archeol., vol. 22, p. 358, London, 1900).--=Place=, V., Ninive et l’Assyrie. Paris, 1867-1890.--=Pognon=, H., Inscription de Meron-Nerar, roi d’Assyrie. Paris, 1884. Les inscriptions babyloniennes du Wadi Brissa. Paris, 1887.--=Prévost-Paradol=, L. A., Essai sur l’histoire universelle. Paris, 1890, 2 vols.

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=Radau=, H., Early Babylonian History. New York, 1900.--=Ragozin=, Z. A., The Story of Chaldea (Stories of the Nations). London, 1888; Media, Babylon and Persia. London, 1889; Assyria. London, 1888.--=Ranwolf=, L., Journey into Syria, Armenia, Mesopotamia.--=Rassam=, H., Excavations and Discoveries in Assyria. London; Asshur and the Land of Nimrod. Cincinnati, 1897; Babylonian Cities. London, 1883.

_Hormuzd Rassam_ was born of Chaldean Christian parents at Mosul, Turkey, in 1826. In 1845 he became acquainted with Austin H. Layard, who was then exploring Assyrian ruins, and becoming much interested in the work of Layard, he accompanied him to England in 1847, continuing his studies in that country. In 1864 he was sent by the British Government on a mission to Abyssinia to secure the release of several Europeans who were held prisoners by King Theodore, but he was himself imprisoned for two years by that king. Shortly after securing his release he visited the Babylonian-Assyrian region for the British Museum, and while on this expedition and others following, he made many important discoveries. Notable among these discoveries are the bronze gates of Balawat, from the time of Shalmaneser II (858-824 B.C.), and the Abu-Habba tablet, recording the restoration of the temple by Nabu-apal-iddin, a contemporary of Shalmaneser II. The name of Rassam is associated with that of Layard, and with the early history of Assyriology. Rassam was primarily an explorer; he assisted Layard in his earlier work at Nineveh, and himself carried on the investigations for the British Government after Layard had been called to other fields. Rassam has never become an Assyriologist in the technical acceptance of the term, contenting himself generally with securing the material on which the investigations of numerous scholars have been based. The greatest single feat which he accomplished was the discovery of the now famous library of Asshurbanapal. He has himself told the story of his discoveries in books that are not so widely known as they deserve to be.

=Rawlinson=, G., The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World. 2nd ed. London, 1871; A Manual of Ancient History. Oxford, 1869; Herodotus. London, 1858-75, 4 vols.; Papers in Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc.; vols. X, XI, XII. London, 1885; The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia. London, 1861-1891.

_George Rawlinson_ (brother of Sir Henry Rawlinson) was born at Chadlington, Oxfordshire, England, in 1815. He was educated at Swansea and at Ealing School. He graduated from Trinity College, Oxford, with classical honours, in 1838. He was elected Fellow of Exeter College in 1840. In 1859, as Bampton Lecturer, he delivered his famous lecture on _Historical Evidences of the Truth of the Scriptural Records_. He was chosen Camden Professor of Ancient History in 1861, and in 1872 was made Canon of Canterbury. His historical writings cover nearly the entire history of the Ancient Orient. Some one has said of Canon Rawlinson that his scholarship is of a peculiarly German type, and the criticism would seem to be essentially just. Few other Englishmen of our generation have covered so wide a field of history, and covered it so thoroughly as has Professor Rawlinson. The whole field of southwestern Asia in antiquity he has made peculiarly his own, and in a series of widely circulated books he has imparted his knowledge to the world, some of them, as that on the Parthian Monarchy, dealing with nations that other historians had very much neglected. All of this work, as has been said, is based upon scholarly investigations that might justly be said to be profound. If in his estimate of certain portions of this history, in particular as regards the newer ideas of the chronology of the remoter periods, Professor Rawlinson has hardly kept pace with the leaders of the newest generation, this is certainly not more than one should expect in one whose memories carry him back to the very beginnings of the “time” controversy. The Canon died in 1902.

=Rawlinson=, H. C., Outline of the History of Assyria. London, 1852.--=Records of the Past= (=Birch=, S.). London, 1873, 12 vols.--=Revue d’Assyriologie=. Paris, 1886, etc.--=Rich=, C. I., Babylonia and Persepolis: Memoirs on the Ruins of Babylon. London, 1818.--=Robertson=, H. S., Voices of the Past from Assyria and Babylonia. London, 1900.--=Rogers=, R. W., History of Babylonia and Assyria. London, 1901, 2 vols.

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=Sachau=, E., Reise in Syrien und Mesopotamien. Leipsic, 1885; Am Euphrat und Tigris. Leipsic, 1900.--=Sarzec=, G. C. E., de, Découvertes en Chaldée. Paris, 1884-1893, 2 vols.

_Gustave Charles Ernest Chocquin de Sarzec_ was born 11th August, 1836. After the discoveries of Botta and Layard had shown the scientific world what neglected treasure-houses were to be found in Mesopotamia, it was natural that explorers should seek out the other fields of ancient activity, in particular those to the south in Old Babylonia, and yet older Chaldea. Among those who went into the latter field most successfully was M. de Sarzec. His explorations at Tello, one of the oldest seats of Mesopotamian civilisation revealed a vast quantity of most interesting antiquities of a type in many ways different from those of the comparatively recent Assyrian period. In particular the statues in the round, which seem to have been a common form of artistic expression with the ancient Chaldeans, have interest because of their difference from the bas-reliefs that were the favourite sculptures of the artists of Nineveh. In the interpretation of the large store of material which De Sarzec secured he had had the assistance of M. Layon Heuzey and M. Amiaud.

=Sayce=, A. H., Lectures on the Religions of Ancient Assyria and Babylonia. London, 1888; Ancient Empires of the East. London, 1884; Assyria: its Princes, Priests, and People. London, 1882; Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs. New York, 1899; Social Life among the Assyrians. London, 1893; Primer of Assyriology. London, 1894; The Races of the Old Testament. London, 1891; Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments. London, 1884.

_Archibald Henry Sayce_, born at Shirehampton, near Bristol, 25th September, 1846. Deputy Professor of comparative Philology at Oxford from 1876 to 1890; at present Professor of Assyriology at Oxford. The well-known Oxford Professor has been one of the most versatile and active of orientalists. He seems equally at home whether the field be Egypt, Mesopotamia, or Assyria, and he is a writer of such indefatigable industry that scholarly works on one subject or another are constantly coming from his pen. Professor Sayce is by no means a closet student only but is a traveller of wide experience, and latterly it has become his custom to spend his winters and springs house-boating in Egypt. He has a rare merit of combining the utmost scholarship with a capacity for clear presentation of his subject, and his works are therefore almost as well known to the general reader as they are to the specialist. In each generation there are but a few men who combining these traits act as interpreters between the land of scholarship and the abiding place of ordinary mortals and among these in our generation Professor Sayce takes a foremost rank.

=Saulcy=, L. F. J. C., de, Recherches sur la chronologie des empires de Ninive, de Babylone et d’Ekbatane. Paris, 1854.--=Schäfer=, B., Die Entdeckungen in Assyrien und Aegypten in ihrer Beziehung zur heiligen Schrift. Wien, 1896.--=Schmidt=, V., Assyriens of Aegyptens gamle Historie. Copenhagen, 1872-1877.--=Schrader=, E., Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament. London, 1873, 2 vols.; Die Höllenfahrt der Istar ein altbabylon. Epos; Giessen, 1874; Eine Sammlung von Übersetzungen der wichtigsten Texte (Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek). Berlin, 1889-1901, vols. 1-6; Keilinschriften und Geschichtsforschung. Giessen, 1878.

_Eberhard Schrader_ was born at Brunswick, Germany, 5th January, 1836. He studied at the gymnasium in Brunswick and in the University at Göttingen. Shortly after finishing his studies in Göttingen he was appointed Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages at Zürich, and later he filled corresponding chairs at Giessen and Jena. In 1875 he was given a professorship and made a member of the Royal Academy at Berlin. He also edited _Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek_. Only a few of his works have been translated into English, most notable among these being _The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament_.

=Smith=, G., Assyrian Discoveries. London, 1875; Assyria, from the Earliest Times. London, 1875; The Chaldean Genesis. London, 1881; The History of Babylon. London, 1877; History of Sennacherib (from inscriptions). London, 1878; History of Asshurbanipal (from inscriptions). London, 1871; Assyria from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh. New York, 1876.

_George Smith_ was born in London, England, 26th March, 1840. He is said to have first become interested in Assyriology from having to engrave some cuneiform plates for publication. He at once took up the study, and a little later was appointed to a position in the Assyrian department of the British Museum. He very soon became one of the great promoters of Assyriology. With Sir Henry Rawlinson he edited vols. III-IV of _The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_. In 1872 he discovered among the clay books of the British Museum fragments of a story of the Deluge, similar to the biblical version. Soon after this he visited Nineveh to make further search for clay books in Asshurbanapal’s palace, and his expedition was very successful. The Deluge story proved to be part of a great poem written on twelve tablets. He made two other expeditions for the Museum, but on the last one was stricken with fever and died at Aleppo, 19th August, 1876. George Smith was known among orientalists as a man who had a peculiar instinct for the translation of obscure texts. He devoted his entire life to oriental studies, and came to be recognised as one of the foremost of orientalists.

=Spiegel=, F., Die altpersischen Keilinschriften 2nd ed. Leipsic, 1881.--=Strabo=, The Geography of Strabo. London, 1854, 3 vols.--=Strassmaier=, J. N., Babylonische Texte. Leipsic, 1889; Inschriften von Nabuchodonosor, König von Babylon (609-561). Leipsic, 1889.--=Streck=, M., Die alte Landschaft Babylonien nach den arabischen Geographen. Leyden, 1900, 2 vols.

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=Talbot=, W. H. Fox (in Records of the Past). London, 1856, 18 vols.; Inscription of Tiglath Pileser I, King of Assyria, B.C. 1150 (in Jour. Royal Asiatic Soc.). London, 1857.

_William Henry Fox Talbot_ was born 11th February, 1800, at Laycock Abbey, near Chippenham, England. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, gaining the Porson prize there in 1820. Contributed papers to the Royal Society in 1822, and in the same year began a series of optical researches and experiments which afterward played an important part in photography. In connection with his scientific studies he devoted much of his time to the study of archeology, and in later life gave his entire time to it. He shares the honour with Sir Henry Rawlinson and Dr. Hincks of being one of the first to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh. He died at Laycock Abbey, 17th September, 1877. Talbot was a master in the field of Assyriology. He was, indeed, one of the first to gain distinction in this line, and in a peculiar sense one of the founders of the science.

=Taylor=, W. C., Students’ Manual of Ancient History. London, 1882.--=Tiele=, C. P., History of Assyria. London, 1886; Eastern Asia according to the most recent Discoveries. London, 1894; Comparative History of Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religion; Babyl.-assyr. Geschichte. Gotha, 1886-1888, 2 vols. (in Records of the Past). London, 1873, 18 vols.

_Cornelis Petrus Tiele_ was born at Leyden, Holland, 16th December, 1830. He was educated in the university of that city, giving especial attention to the study of philosophy and history. In 1877 he was appointed to the chair of History and Religion in the University of Leyden. His numerous publications on history and philosophy have been widely translated. Professor Tiele enjoys the distinction somewhat rare among his countrymen of a quite cosmopolitan reputation. As an authority on ancient religions he has no superior, and his writings are almost as well known in Germany, France, England, and America as in his native Holland.

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=Valbuena=, R. F., Egipto y Asiria resucitados la parte. Madrid, 1895.--=Van den Berg=, E., Petite histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1883.--=Vaux=, W. G. W., Nineveh and Persepolis. London, 1880.--=Vigoroux=, F., La Bible et les découvertes en Assyrie. Paris, 1887.

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=Wachsmuth=, C., Einleitung in das Studium d. alten Geschichte. Leipsic, 1895.--=Wahrmund=, A., Babylonierthum und Christenthum. Leipsic, 1882.--=Ward=, W. H., Notes on Original Antiquities. Baltimore, 1887; Report on the Wolfe Expedition to Babylonia. Boston, 1886; The Babylonian Caduceno (in Amer. Orient. Soc. Jour., vol. 14). New Haven, 1890; The Story of the Serpent and the Tree (in Amer. Antiq. and Orient. Jour., vol. 20, p. 211). Chicago, 1898.--=Weber=, G., Allgemeine Weltgeschichte. Leipsic, 1857-1880, 15 vols.--=Weiss=, J. B. von, Geschichte des Orients. 1886.--=Weissbach=, F. H., Zur Lösung der sumerischen Frage. Leipsic, 1897; Über einige neuere Arbeiten zur babyl. pers. Chronologie (in Deutsche Morgenland. Ges. Zeitch., vol. 55, p. 195. Leipsic, 1901).--=Wernicke=, C., Geschichte des Alterthums. 1890.--=Wilberforce=, R. F., The Five Empires. London, 1899.--=Winckler=, H., Sammlung von Keilschrifttexten. Leipsic, 1893-1894; Untersuchungen zur altorientalischen Geschichte. Leipsic, 1889; Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens. Leipsic, 1892; Altorientalische Forschungen, Leipsic, 1893-1897; Völker und Staaten des alten Orients. Leipsic, 1900.--=Woltmann=, A. K., History of Painting. London, 1880, 2 vols.--=Wood=, R., The Ruins of Palmyra.

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=Zimmern=, H., The Babylonian and the Hebrew Genesis. London, 1901.