CHAPTER XI. EGYPTIAN CULTURE

[b] J. GARDNER WILKINSON, _A Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians_.

[c] G. C. C. MASPERO, rendering in _Les Contes Populaires de l’Égypte Ancienne_ of M. Golenischeff’s translation of the original papyrus in the Imperial Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg.

[d] HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, _The History of the Art of Writing_.

[e] CLAUDIUS ÆLIANUS, _The Variable History of Ælianus_ (translated from the Greek by A. Fleming).

APPENDIX A. CLASSICAL TRADITIONS

[b] HERODOTUS, _History of Herodotus_ (translated from the Greek by William Beloe).

[c] DIODORUS SICULUS, _The Historical Library_ (translated from the Greek by G. Booth).

APPENDIX B. THE PROBLEM OF EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY

[b] EDUARD MEYER, _Geschichte des Alterthums_.

[c] A. MARIETTE, _Aperçu de l’histoire d’Égypte_.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY

BASED ON THE WORKS QUOTED, CITED, OR EDITORIALLY CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THE PRESENT HISTORY, WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

In the preparation of the present work the editors have had occasion to consult a very large number of books, in addition to those actually quoted. Not all of these are here listed; neither is any effort made to have the present bibliography complete in other respects. Many names of recent works that might easily be added are purposely omitted because of the facility with which the student will come upon them. On the other hand, a good many works are included because their very obscurity would lead to their being overlooked. Some of these had great importance in their day, and must be looked to by any one who would appreciate the history of development and research in this field. Others had at best only incidental importance, yet should not be quite forgotten. Brief critical estimates are in many cases added to orientate the would-be investigator; and in the case of the more important authorities, biographical notes are also appended.

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=Adams=, W. M., The Mystery of Ancient Egypt. The New Review, 1893; The House of the Hidden Places. London, 1895.--=Ælianus=, Claudius, The Variable History of Ælianus. London, 1576.

_Claudius Ælianus_ was a Roman citizen who lived in the second century A.D., the exact date being uncertain. Though a Roman, he preferred Greek to Latin, and wrote all his works in the former language. He has been denominated the “honey-tongued,” from the character of his style, and the “sophist,” from his teaching rhetoric. Two of his works are still extant: the _Varia Historia_, from which our excerpts are taken, and a book on natural history, which enjoyed great repute in later classical and mediæval times. Both of these works are written apparently without system, though the author himself declared that it was his intention to shift from one topic to another to keep up the reader’s interest. The work on natural history, having of course no other than an antiquarian interest in modern times, has never been translated; but the _Varia Historia_ has been rendered into English twice; the quaint old translation of Fleming, made in 1576, being the one which we select for our excerpts. The value of this work depends largely upon the fact that it is made up from the writings of still more ancient historians whose works are mainly lost.

=Amélineau=, E., La Géographie de l’Égypte à l’époque copte. Paris, 1893; Résumé de l’histoire de l’Égypte. Paris, 1894; Les nouvelles fouilles d’Abydos, Angero; Les Moines égyptiens. Paris, 1890; La morale égyptienne. Paris, 1892; Les idées morales dans l’Égypte ancienne. Paris, 1895; Essai sur l’évolution historique et philosophique des idées morales dans l’Égypte ancienne. Paris, 1896; Histoire de la sépulture et des funérailles dans l’ancienne Égypte. Paris, 1896.--=Anonymous=, Ausführliches Verzeichniss der aegyptischen Altertümer, Gipsabgüsse und Papyrus der Berl. Samml. Berlin, 1894.

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=Batten=, S. H., Pharaoh of the Exodus. Melbourne, 1880.--=Bénédite=, G., Le temple de Philæ. Paris, 1895.--=Berkley=, E., Pharaohs and their People. London, 1884.--=Birch=, S., Records of the Past. London, 18 vols., 1873; Egypt to 300 B.C. London, 1875; Two Tablets of the Ptolemaic Period (Archeologia, vol. 39). London, 1863.

_Dr. Samuel Birch_ was born in London, 3rd November, 1813; died there 27th December, 1885. He was a scholar of recognised profundity and also of remarkable versatility. He went early to the British Museum in the department of antiquities, his specialty at that time being Chinese. Later on he became chief of the department of antiquities, including oriental, classical, mediæval, and early British archæology. He became recognised as an expert in all these departments, and his publications cover almost the entire range of archæology. He was an innovator in both Assyriology and Egyptology. In the latter field his publications are many and varied, one of the most important being his Grammar of the Egyptian Language, which was incorporated with the great work on Egyptian history by Baron Bunsen. As the science of Egyptology was then in a transition state, this and the other works of Dr. Birch are of course now superseded, though by no means rendered valueless. One of the most important editorial tasks of Dr. Birch was the bringing out of a series known as _The Records of the Past_, which consisted of translations from Egyptian and Assyrio-Babylonian records. Dr. Birch himself contributed several of these. He also had the distinction of being the first translator of the Egyptian Book of the Dead. To some extent Dr. Birch suffered from his versatility; being known in so many fields, he is not thought of pre-eminently in connection with any one of them, but he will always be remembered as an innovator in the field of Egyptology.

=Bokh=, A., Manetho und die Hundstern-Periode. Berlin, 1845.--=Borchardt=, Zur Geschichte der Pyramiden, Ztschr. für Aegypt. Spr., 1894.--=Boudier=, E., Vers égyptiens, métrique démotique. Paris, 1897.--=Breasted=, I. H., De hymnis in solem sub rege Amenophide IV conceptis. Berlin, 1894.--=Brimmer=, M., Egypt. Three Essays on the History, Religion, and Art of Egypt. Boston, 1891.--=Brugsch=, H. C., Geschichte Aegyptens unter den Pharaonen. Leipsic, 1877, 2 vols. Genesis of the Earth and of Man. London, 1880. Die aegyptischen Altertümer in Berlin. Berlin, 1857. Recueil des monuments égyptiens. Leipsic, 1862-1863. Dictionnaire géographique de l’ancienne Égypte. Leipsic, 1877-1880. Thesaurus inscriptionum ægyptiarum. Leipsic, 1883-1891. Religion und Mythologie der alten aegypter. Leipsic, 1890. Die aegyptologie, Abriss der Entzifferungen und Forschungen. Leipsic, 1891.

_Heinrich Carl Brugsch_ was born at Berlin, 1827; died there, 1894. He belonged to that rather large company of German investigators, who are at once scholars and diplomatists. His residence in Egypt was not as an ordinary tourist or investigator, but as an officer of the Egyptian Government, with the title of Bey and later of Pasha. Like his famous countrymen, Niebuhr and Bunsen, before him, he found time in the midst of official duties for a wide range of scholarly activities, and he soon became known, not only as one of the foremost Egyptologists, but as incomparably the highest authority on one form of the Egyptian writing, namely, the demotic. His _History of Egypt under the Pharaohs_, derived entirely from the monuments, is a work of the most standard authority. It is, in the main, a work rather for the scholar than for the general public; but it is by no means without popular interest, and, notwithstanding its bulk, it has been translated into English. The reader will recall that we have based our chronology upon the system of Dr. Brugsch,--a system confessedly artificial, which, however, meets the difficulties of the subject perhaps better than any other yet devised.

=Budge=, E. A. W., The Book of the Dead. London, 1895; Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life. London, 1899; Egyptian Magic. London, 1899; The Mummy: Chapters on Egyptian Funeral Archæology. Cambridge, 1893; Egypt in the Neolithic and Archaic Periods. London and New York, 1902.

_Ernest A. Wallis Budge_, M.A., Litt.D., D.Lit., F.S.A., Keeper of Assyrian and Egyptian Antiquities, British Museum. Dr. Budge has at once the profundity and the versatility of his famous predecessor at the British Museum, Dr. Birch. The list of his writings on oriental archæology is much too long to be cited in full here. Among other things he has put would-be students of the subject under lasting obligations by preparing an elementary treatise on the Egyptian language, and following it up with a more advanced work for the use of the student, He has also made an elaborate translation of the Book of the Dead, utilising the recent advances in the knowledge of Egyptian hieroglyphics to improve upon the former translations. His latest work in this field is a popular history of Egypt, in eight volumes, published at London, 1902. In addition to his recognised profound scholarship, Dr. Budge has in a high degree the capacity for literary presentation, and he has not felt himself above considering the needs of the unscholarly public and of the beginner in oriental studies. Thus his catalogue of Egyptian antiquities at the British Museum, which is ostensibly only a guide-book to the collection there, is in itself a work of real literary merit, which would serve as a valuable introduction to the study of archæology even if placed in the hands of students who have not access to the collection which it specifically describes.

=Bunsen=, C. K. J., Egypt’s Place in Universal History. London, 1848-1867.

_Baron Christian Karl Josias von Bunsen_ was born at Korbach, Germany, 25th August, 1791, and died at Bonn, 28th November, 1860. Baron Bunsen had the original instincts of the scholar, as proved by his numerous writings; but it was his fate to be shifted early in life from the field of professional scholarship to that of the diplomatist, and his researches were carried on under somewhat disadvantageous circumstances. He had come early under the influence of Niebuhr, and had planned a life of scholarship; but becoming the tutor of Frederick William III, and being advanced through royal influence to a diplomatic post in Rome, and afterwards in London, he came to be more widely known as a diplomatist and statesman than as a scholar. Nevertheless, he contributed much to a popular knowledge of history, through his _Aegyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte_, and its English translation as above. It had a wide circulation, and did perhaps more than almost any other single work to popularise the relatively new subject of Egyptology. His _Gott in der Geschichte_ (God in History) also had great popularity. The eminently philosophical character of these writings is valued even at the present day, though it must be conceded that the point of view regarding many of the subjects treated has quite radically changed in the past half century. It follows that the interest in Baron Bunsen’s books must to a large extent be antiquarian rather than historical at the present day, though they cannot be ignored by any one who wishes to have a full comprehension of the growth and development of the science of Egyptology.

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=Cailliaud=, F., Travels in the Oases of Thebes. London, 1829.--=Casanova=, Memoirs on the History and Archæology of Egypt.--=Chabas=, J. F., in Birch’s _Records of the Past_. London, 1873, 12 vols.; Étude sur l’antiquité historique. Paris, 1873; Mélanges Égyptologiques. Châlons, 1863-1873.

_Joseph François Chabas_ was born 2nd January, 1817, in Briançon; died 17th May, 1882, at Versailles. He was a specialist in Egyptology, who wrote widely and was recognised as an authority of importance. He is best known to the English reader through certain translations, notably of the inscriptions on the obelisks, published in Birch’s _Records of the Past_. He produced no general historical work, such as would have brought his name before the public at large, and hence he is less familiarly known than many other Egyptologists of less worth.

=Chaillé-Long=, C., L’Égypte et ses provinces perdues. Paris, 1892.--=Champollion=, J. F., L’Égypte sous les Pharaohs. Paris, 1814; Descriptions de l’Égypte, etc.; De l’écriture hiératiques des anciens Égyptiens. Paris, 1824; Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique des anciens Égyptiens. Paris, 1824, 2 vols.; Monuments de l’Égypte et de la Nubie. Paris, 1835-1845, 4 vols.

_Jean François Champollion_ was born at Figéac, Lot, France, 23rd December, 1790; died at Paris, 4th March, 1832. Champollion’s work has received comprehensive attention in our text (see Egypt, Chapter XI) in connection with the interpretation of the hieroglyphics, in which work Champollion was an innovator of the first rank. His fame rests chiefly upon this accomplishment, but his entire life was devoted to Egyptology, and he would have been remembered always as one of the fathers of the science, even had he not been the chief originator in the particular work of interpreting the hieroglyphics. Naturally much of his work has been superseded by more recent investigations. This must be true, in the nature of things, of the work of any innovator in science; but, as we have seen, the whole modern science of Egyptology rests securely on the foundation which Champollion laid.

=Charmes=, G., L’Égypte archéol. hist. lit. Paris, 1891.--=Chesney=, I., The Land of the Pyramids. London, 1884.--=Clot-Beg=, A. B., Aperçu général sur l’Égypte. Paris, 1840; De la peste observée en Égypte. Paris, 1840; Description de l’Égypte; Coup d’œil sur la peste et les quarantaines. Paris, 1851.--=Cook=, F. C., Records of the Past. London, 1873, 18 vols.--=Cooper=, W. A., Short History of Egyptian Monuments. London, 1876.--=Cory=, I. P., Ancient Fragments of Phœnician, Chaldean, Egyptian, and other writers. London, 1826, second edition, 1832.

This work has been revised by E. Richmond Hodges in an edition published in 1876, containing some improvements but lacking the original Greek and Latin texts. The work is purely a compilation consisting solely of fragmentary remains of various classical authors. It gathers into a single work a great variety of matter, much of which was hitherto inaccessible to the average scholar; fragments, many of which give us an interesting view of various historical characters. We shall have occasion to quote some of these excerpts in other connections. The original work contained certain Neo-Platonic forgeries known as the Oracles of Zoroaster, the Hermetic Creed, and the Orphic and Pythagorean fragments which are discarded by the editor of the new edition as being of doubtful authenticity and little value. Even these, however, have an antiquarian interest, and the fact that the excerpts are given in the original languages as well as in the translation, makes the earlier edition of the work, as published by Cory himself, still particularly valuable.

=Cougny=, G., L’art antique (L’Égypte, etc.) Paris, 1891.--=Cusieri=, Storia fisica e politicia dell’ Egitto delle prime memorie de suoi abitanti al 1842. Florence, 1862, 2 vols.

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=Daressy=, I., Contribution a l’étude de la 21ème dynastie égyptienne in Rev. Archéol. 3e serie 27.--=Davis=, Ch. H. S., The Book of the Dead. New York; Egyptian Mythology. In Biblia, VI, 9.--=Daunou=, P. C. F., Cours d’études historiques. Paris, 1842, 20 vols.--=Diodorus Siculus=, The Historical Library. London, 1700.

A somewhat extended account of _Diodorus_ and his work will be found in Part I in the chapter on world histories, and a further note in Egypt, Appendix A, p. 268. It is unnecessary to make further comment here, beyond mentioning the translation from which our excerpts are made. This, as will be seen, was published just at the beginning of the eighteenth century; but it has never been superseded, few scholars having cared to undertake the task of translating an author whose works are so voluminous. Even were more recent translations available, the one we have used would still have been selected, because of the quaintness of its diction, which, as has been suggested, conveys to the average reader a better idea of the original language than would a more modern rendering.

=Driault=, E., La Question d’Orient depuis ses origines jusqu’ à nos jours. Paris, 1898.--=Dümichen=, J., Geographie des alten Aegyptens. Berlin, 1887; Bauurkunde der Tempelanlagen von Dendéra. Leipsic, 1865; Historische Inschriften. Leipsic, 1867-1869, 2 vols.; Der Grosspalast des Petnamenap. Leipsic, 1894; Karte des Stadtgebietes von Memphis und benachbarter Districte. Leipsic, 1895; Die Flotte einer aegyptischen Königin. Leipsic, 1868.

_Johannes Dümichen_ was born 15th October, 1833, in Weisholz, Germany; died 7th February, 1894, at Strassburg. Dr. Dümichen was a student of Lepsius and Brugsch, and he devoted his entire life to Egyptology. He made several journeys to Egypt and wrote extensively regarding the archæological features of the subject. His works are mainly technical, and while very valuable for specialists, are not always equally interesting to the general reader. What would have been perhaps his most important contribution, his comprehensive history of Egypt undertaken for the Oncken series, was incomplete at the time of his death; having dealt only with the geographical and archæological features. The work was completed by Eduard Meyer (see below).

=Duncker=, M., Geschichte des Alterthums. Berlin, 1855, 1877, etc., 6 vols; History of Antiquity (translated by Evelyn Abbott). London, 1877, 6 vols.

_Maxmilian Wolfgang Duncker_ was born 15th October, 1811, at Berlin; died 21st July, 1896. The writings of Duncker cover a wide range of historical subjects, but he will chiefly be remembered for his _History of Antiquity_, which took rank on publication as the most important contribution to the subject. It was improved in successive editions, and was translated into English. Its merits of style are unusually great for a German work, and, needless to say, it was built on authorities with the usual German comprehensiveness of view. Dealing with the subject of oriental history, however, it is necessarily out of date regarding many subjects, and the more scientific, if somewhat less popular, work of Meyer has latterly superseded it to a large extent.

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=Ebers=, G., Egypt. London, 1880; Über das hieroglyph. Schriftsystem, Berlin, 1875.

_Georg Moritz Ebers_ was born 1st March, 1837; died August, 1898. The name of Ebers is probably better known to the general public than that of any other Egyptologist. But the average reader of his very popular novels is not perhaps aware that the author was a technical Egyptologist of the highest rank. Ebers made personal explorations in Egypt, the most notable result being the discovery of the papyrus which has since borne his name,--a remarkable document dealing with the practice of medicine in old Egypt, which remains our chief source of knowledge regarding this subject.

=Erman=, A., Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben in Altertum. Tübingen, 1887; Life in Ancient Egypt. London, 1894; Die Entstehung eines Totentextbuches, in Ztschr. für Aegypt. Spr. no. 32, 1894.

_Dr. Adolf Erman_, Professor of Egyptology in the University of Berlin, Director of the Berlin Museum, member of the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences, at Berlin, etc., was born 31st October, 1854, at Berlin. Professor Erman is the successor of Lepsius in the chair of Egyptology at the University of Berlin, and it is felt that the mantle of the great Egyptologist has fallen on worthy shoulders. Professor Erman’s writings have mainly had to do with grammatical and literary investigations. His editions of the romances of old Egypt are models of scholarly interpretation. They give the original hieratic text with translations into Egyptian hieroglyphics, into Latin, and into German. Such works are, of course, intended chiefly for the scholar. Persons capable of such works of scholarship are seldom interested in the exact manner of presentation of their subject, and very generally they scorn popular treatment in their writings. But Professor Erman, following the precedent of here and there a forerunner such as Heeren, has written a strictly popular work on the life of the ancient Egyptians that is by far the most complete treatise on the subject attempted since the time of Wilkinson. The reader will not have overlooked the masterly characterisation of Egyptian history which Professor Erman has written for the present work.

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=Ferguson=, J., History of Architecture. London, 1874, 4 vols.

_James Ferguson_ was born at Ayr, Scotland, 22nd January, 1808; died 9th January, 1886. The personal history of Ferguson is quite unlike that of almost any other Anglo-Saxon of similar achievements except Grote; but is in some ways closely suggestive of the great historian of Greece. It even more closely resembles the life of Schliemann, the great German, whose rediscovery of Troy has made his name familiar to every one. Like Schliemann Ferguson devoted the years of his early manhood to a purely commercial pursuit, and like him he followed this pursuit with such success as to acquire a fortune, which enabled him to retire while still in the prime of manhood. Oddly enough, the parallel between these two lives is made still closer by the fact that the particular commodity with which each dealt chiefly was indigo. But beyond this the parallel no longer holds, for the seat of Schliemann’s commercial activities, as will be recalled, was Russia, while Ferguson made his fortune in India. No sooner had Ferguson acquired a fortune that would justify him in retiring, than he turned at once to a field of study that undoubtedly stood in need of investigation, and made that study his life-work. Guided by the same energy and judgment that gained him a fortune in his commercial pursuits, Ferguson soon made himself master of the subject of architecture, and presently came to be known as the chief authority on the history of architecture in antiquity.

=Fleay=, I. G., Egyptian Chronology. London, 1899 (Jour. Brit. Archeol. Assoc., 1899).--=Fries=, S. A., 1st Israel jemals in Aegypten gewesen? In _Sphinx_, I, 207-221.

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=Gagnol=, Cours d’histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient. Tours, 1891.--=Ganeval=, L., L’Égypte. Lyon, 1882.--=Gardner=, A., Naukratis. London, 1889.--=Gau=, F. C., Antiquités de la Nubie, ou monuments inédits des bords du Nil. Paris, 1822.--=Geyersburg=, C. H. de, Egypt and Palestine in Primitive Times. London, 1895.--=Girard=, Description de l’Égypte.--=Golenischeff=, Impérial Inventaire de la Collection égyptienne de l’Ermitage. St. Petersburg, 1891.--=Gradenwitz=, O., Einführung in die Papyruskunde. Leipsic, 1900. =Grandbey=, Rapport sur les temples égyptiens. Cairo, 1888.--=Gravierre=, I. de la, La marine des Ptolémées. Paris, 1885, 2 vols.--=Groff=, W., La fille de Pharaoh. Cairo.--=Gruson=, H., Im Reiche des Litches (Pyramiden nach den ältesten Quellen). Braunschweig, 1893.--=Guimet=, Plutarque et l’Égypte. Paris, 1898.--=Gutschmid=, A. von, Kleine Schriften, vol. 1. Schriften zur Aegyptologie. Leipsic, 1889.

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=Halévy=, Jos., Revue Sémitique d’épigraphie et d’histoire ancienne. Paris, 1893.--=Harkness=, M. E., Egyptian Life and History. London, 1884.--=Heeren=, A. H. L., Ideen ueber die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der Alten Welt, 3 edit. Göttingen, 1815, 4 vols. English translation: Historical Researches, etc. Oxford, 1878, 5 vols.

_Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren_ was born at Arbergen, near Bremen, 1760; died at Göttingen, 1842. The celebrated author of _Historical Researches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians_ was, during the greater part of his life, Professor of History at Göttingen; he had, however, earlier in his career, filled the chair of Philosophy in the same university, and the happy mingling of the philosophical with the historical cast of mind is at all times evidenced in his writings. The historical writings of Professor Heeren cover a wide field, but his greatest renown was achieved with his _History of the Nations of Antiquity_. In this Professor Heeren broke new ground. His scheme of treatment was quite different from that of any one who had preceded him. His intention was not so much to elucidate the political history, as to deal with those commercial relations and social customs which, after all, are the chief foundations of a nation’s life. In particular he was perhaps the first great historian who fully grasped the import of the commercial relations of ancient nations. He made himself master of all knowledge obtainable in his day bearing on this topic, and his work at once took rank as the foremost authority on its subject. So much as this goes almost without saying, for hardly any one attains to professorship in a German university who has not the qualities of scholarship calculated to make him an authority on any topic which he will undertake to treat. But, what is much more unusual among the Germans, Professor Heeren had also the gift of style. His work is not only authoritative, but readable. Indeed, in this regard, it is surpassed even now by very few works in the domain of history. As evidence of this characteristic, the works of Professor Heeren were at once translated both into French and into English, and have the widest popularity in France, England, and America. In the nature of the case, the authoritative character of his works cannot have been maintained at their original standard, since the new discoveries and excavations in the Orient have so altered the phases of our conception of oriental history. In one sense, therefore, it is unfortunate that Professor Heeren could not have written after the excavations of Layard in Nineveh had given the new stock of material for ferreting out the history of Mesopotamia. Nevertheless, as far as it went, the history of Heeren was founded firmly upon facts which the new researches have left unshaken, and his work, as a whole, still has great value for the historical student of the period. There are sections of it, indeed, which have neither been supplanted nor duplicated.

=Hegel=, G. W. F., Lectures on the Philosophy of History. London, 1857.--=Herodotus=, History of Herodotus. London, 1806, 4 vols.

_Herodotus_, the celebrated “Father of History,” or, as K. O. Müller styles him, the “Father of Prose,” was born at Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, about 484 B.C., and died at Hurii, Italy, about 424 B.C.; there is no certainty as to the exact dates. Reference has been made to Herodotus in Egypt. Here it is desirable to add a few words as to the translation from which our excerpts are chosen. Needless to say, there have been numerous translations of Herodotus of varying degrees of merit. Doubtless the most authoritative, historically considered, is the famous one which Professor George Rawlinson, with the aid of his brother, Sir Henry Rawlinson, and of Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, made about the middle of the nineteenth century. This particular translation, however, is of chief value not so much for its text as for the scholarly notes which the translators have appended. As to the text itself, there is at least one still more recent translation--that by Macaulay--which may perhaps claim to give even a closer rendering. For the use of the scholar these translations cannot be too highly commended, but it still remains true that by far the most readable and, so to say, Herodotus-like, English rendering of the “Father of History” is that which was made about a century ago by the Rev. William Beloe (1756-1817), an English divine, who from 1803 to 1806 was keeper of printed books at the British Museum, and who produced a variety of writings of considerable note in their day. His version of Herodotus has been said, properly enough, to lack the close verbal accuracy of some more recent performances; but, on the other hand, the accuracy of its rendering as a translation in the best sense, rather than a mere literary transcription, is not in question, and modern critics concede that in point of readableness, Beloe is quite without a peer. And, broadly considered, one surely is justified in saying that Herodotus not readable is not Herodotus at all. Beloe explicitly repudiates the literal plan of translation, aiming, as he states in his preface, to give as nearly as possible the spirit of the author, along with a clear interpretation of his text. How well he succeeded is evidenced by a critical estimate which says of him that “something in his mental constitution qualified him admirably for reproducing the limpid simplicity and amiable garrulity of Herodotus.”

=Hieratische Papyrus= aus den Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, hrsg. von der Generalverwaltung Berlin.--=Hommel=, F. Der Babylonische Ursprung der aegyptischen Cultur. München, 1892.

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=Jacotin=, Carte topographique de l’Égypte. Paris. 1869.--=St. John=, Egypt and Nubia. London. 1845.--=Johnson=, V. E., Egyptian Science from the Monuments and Ancient Books. London, 1892.--=Jornard=, E. F., Description de l’Égypte. Paris, 1809.

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=Kayser=, F., Aegypten einst und jetzt. Frieburg, 1879, 2nd ed.--=Kenrick=, J., Ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs. London, 1850, 2 vols.--=Kminek-Szedlo=, I., Catalogo di antichita egizie. Torino, 1895.--=Krall=, J., Studien zur Geschichte des alten Aegyptens, in Sitzber, d. Wiener Acad. d. Wiss. Wien. 1890; Beiträge zur Geschichte der Blennyer und Nubier. Wien, 1898.--=Krummel=, L., Die Religion der alten Aegypter. Heidelberg, 1893.

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=Lassus=, L’Art égyptien. Paris, 1898.--=Laurent=, F., Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité. Paris, 1865, 18 vols.--=Lauth=, Aegyptische Chronologie. Strassburg, 1877.--=Lefébure=, L’Importance du nom chez les égyptiens. Sphinx, I; Le contre-charme. Sphinx, I; Rites égyptiens. Paris, 1890.--=Lenormant=, F., Chaldean Magic and its Origin and Development. London, 1877.--=Lepsius=, K. R., Letters from Egypt. London, 1853; Königsbuch der alten Aegypter. Berlin, 1858; Das Totenreich der égypter. Leipsic, 1842; Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien. Berlin, 1849-1859, 12 vols.; Chronologie der Aegypter. Berlin, 1848; Über einige Berührungspunkte der Aegypt., griech. und röm. Chronologie. Berlin Acad., 1859; Über die zwölfte Aegypt. Königsdynastie. Berlin Acad., 1853.

_Karl Richard Lepsius_ was born 23rd December, 1810, at Naumburg, Prussia; died 10th July, 1884, at Berlin. Professor Lepsius was one of the most distinguished of Egyptologists. In his maturer years he had a professorship in Berlin, itself a matter of distinction in that land of scholarship. He made excursions to Egypt in an official capacity, and familiarised himself at first hand with the monuments and records that were his life study. As a writer Professor Lepsius was less distinguished than some of his confrères in the field, though all that he wrote had, of course, the stamp of the highest authority. His letters from Egypt and Nubia, being of a more popular character than his other writings, were translated into English and widely circulated. It must be admitted, however, that his descriptions of the famous ruins have interest rather because they reflect the opinions of a great scholar than because of their intrinsic literary merit.

=Lieblein=, Aegyptische Chronologie, Christiana, 1863; Recherches sur la chronologie égyptienne. Paris, 1873; Hieroglyph. Namenwörterbuch. Leipsic, 1871-1892; Index alphabéthique de tous les mots contenus dans le livre des morts. Paris, 1875; Gammel-aegyptisk Religion populaert fremstillet. Christiana, 1883-1885; Handel und Schiffahrt auf dem Roten Meer in alten Zeiten. Leipsic, 1887; Le livre égyptien que mon nom fleurisse. Leipsic, 1895.--=Loret=, V., L’Égypte aux temps des Pharaohs. Paris, 1889; La flore pharahonique. Paris, 1892.

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=Mahler=, Ed., Materialen zur Chronologie des alten Aegyptens in Ztschr. für äg. Spr. no. 32, 1894.--=Mallet=, D., Les premiers établissements des Grecs en Égypte. Paris, 1893.--=Magrizi=, Description topographique et historique de l’Égypte. Paris, 1895. (Trans. from Arabic).--=Mariette=, Choix des monuments et des dessins. Paris, 1856; Le Sérapeum de Memphis. Paris, 1857-1866, 9 parts; Aperçu de l’histoire de l’Égypte. Paris, 1864; Nouvelle table d’Abydos. Paris, 1865; Fouilles executées en Égypte, en Nubie, et au Soudan. Paris, 1867; Abydos description des fouilles. Paris, 1870-1880, 2 vols.; Catalogue général des monuments d’Abydos. Paris, 1880; Dendéra: description générale du grand temple de cette ville. Paris, 1870-1880, 5 vols.; Les papyrus égyptiens du musée Bolaq. Paris, 1871-1873, 3 vols.; Karnak, Étude historique et archéol. Paris, 1875; Deinri al-Bahari. Paris, 1877; Monuments Divers. Paris, 1872-1889; Les Mastabas de l’ancien empire, ed. by G. Maspero. Paris, 1882-1886; Voyage dans la Haute-Égypte. Paris, 1878 (2nd ed., 1893).

_August Eduard Mariette_ was born 12th February, 1821, at Boulogne; died 18th January, 1881, at Bulaq. He was one of the most assiduous workers, and came to be one of the greatest authorities in the field of Egyptology. He early made explorations in Egypt, and after founding the famous Museum at Bulaq spent the remainder of his life on the ground, almost incessantly occupied with explorations and with the interpretation of his archæological finds. His first famous excavations were made at Memphis, about the middle of the nineteenth century; later on he excavated the famous temple of Abydos. His publications are very numerous, but they are chiefly of a scholarly rather than a popular character. He was the highest authority on the hieratic form of Egyptian writing. Notwithstanding the technical character of much of his writing, he had a wide popular reputation, partly due to his official position as director of the Museum at Bulaq. Like most Frenchmen, Mariette could write in a popular vein when he chose, and his _Aperçu_, above noted (translated into English by Miss Mary Brodrick under the title of _Outlines of Ancient Egyptian History_) is one of the most entertaining popular studies of the subject.

=Martine=, Histoire du monde oriental dans l’antiquité. Paris, 1894.--=Maspero=, G., Du genre épistolaire chez les égyptiens. Paris, 1872; Sur quelques papyrus du Louvre. Paris, 1875; Études égyptiennes. Paris, 1879-1882; Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1886, 4th ed.; L’archéologie égyptienne. Paris, 1887; Les contes populaires de l’Égypte ancienne. Paris, 1889; Les momies royales de Deir et Bahari. Paris, 1889; Lectures historiques; histoire ancienne; Égypte, Assyrie. Paris, 1890; Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique. Paris, 1895; The Struggle of the Nations. Soc. Prom. Chr. Know. London, 1896; Études de mythologie et d’archéologie égyptienne. Paris, 1893; The Dawn of Civilisation. Soc. Prom. Chr. Know. London, 1897; Manual of Egyptian Archæology. Paris, 1893; La carrière administrative de deux hauts fonctionnaires égyptiens vers la fin de la III dynastie, in Journal asiatique, Vol. XV.

_Gaston Camille Charles Maspero_ was born at Paris 24th June, 1846; member of the Institute, formerly Professor of Egyptian Archæology and Ethnology in the _Collège de France_, more recently Director of the Egyptian Museum at Bulaq. Professor Maspero is one of the most famous of living orientalists, and since the death of Mariette Pasha, whose work he has continued in Egypt, he is doubtless the most authoritative of French Egyptologists. While making a specialty of this field, however, he has by no means confined himself to it, and his brilliant writings cover the entire field of oriental antiquity. While Professor Maspero is known everywhere to scholars, and recognised by them, as an authority on the topics of which he treats, his fame as a popular writer is still wider. In fact in this field he, perhaps, has no peer among Egyptologists and orientalists, living or dead. His work entitled _Les Origines_ has been translated into English, under the title of _The Dawn of Civilisation_, as have also its companion volumes, one of which bears the striking title of _The Struggle of the Nations_, but these more elaborate works in no wise detract from the importance and authority of the brilliant earlier _Histoire du peuple de l’Orient_, from which we shall have occasion to make numerous extracts, and which, for some unaccountable reason, has not hitherto been made accessible to English readers. The gift of style is no rarity among French historians, but Professor Maspero has it in a degree unusual even among his compatriots, and the whole range of historical literature can show few works which combine the qualities of authority and readableness in a higher degree than his.

=Melida=, Historia del arte Egipcio. Madrid, 1899.--=Mémoires=, publiées par les membres de la mission archéologique française au Caire sous la direction de Maspero; Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund. London.--=Ménard=, L., La vie privée des anciens. Paris, 1880-1883, 4 vols.; L’histoire des anciens peuples de l’Orient. Paris, 1883. These works are valuable because of their admirable style. They are the work of one who is a writer, rather than an Egyptologist; nevertheless, they are based on a careful study of the authorities, and they may be turned to with confidence.--=Meglin=, F., Histoire de l’Égypte. Paris, 1823.--=Meyer=, E., Geschichte des alten Aegyptens. Berlin, 1887; Geschichte des Alterthums. Stuttgart, 1884, etc., 5 vols. (in progress).

_Eduard Meyer_ was born in 1855, at Hamburg, Germany; he is at present ordinary Professor of Ancient History in the University of Halle, of which university he is also a graduate. Professor Meyer’s historical studies, from the outset, have looked particularly to the history of antiquity. Quite early in life he developed a plan for writing a comprehensive history of both oriental and classical antiquity, and the first volume of this work, under the title of _Geschichte des Alterthums_, appeared in 1884. It is, in some regards, the most valuable history of antiquity as yet written, combining, as it does, the characteristic qualities of German scholarship, with a degree of condensation very unusual in German works, and a fair measure of popularity of style. The first volume of Professor Meyer’s history deals solely with the nations of the Orient, and it furnishes perhaps the best available outline for the studies of any one who would undertake a full investigation of Egyptian history. Unfortunately the work is out of print; but a new edition is promised. The more extended work on Egyptian history was contributed to the Oncken series.

=Milne=, History of Egypt under Roman Rule. London, 1899.--=Minutoli=, Über die aegypt. Pigments und Maltechnik der Alten. 1892.--=Molchow=, E., Aegypten und Palästina. Zürich, 1881.--=Mook=, F., Aegypten’s vormetallische Zeit. Würzburg, 1880.--=Morgan=, Fouilles à Dahschour. Wien, 1895; Catalogue des monuments et inscriptions de l’Égypte antique par Morgan, Bouriant, Legrain, Jequier et Barsant. Wien, 1894. (Valuable technical works.)--=Müller=, W. Max, Who were the Ancient Ethiopians? Philadelphia, 1894; Asien und Aegypten nach altaegyptischen Denkmälern. Leipsic, 1895.

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=Naville=, The Temple of Deir al-Bahari. London, 1894; The Store-city of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus. London, 1888. (Valuable works of an original explorer.)--=Norovitch=, L’Europe et l’Égypte. Paris, 1898.

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=Ollivier-Beauregard=, La caricature égyptienne. Paris, 1894.--=Osburn=, W., Monumental History of Egypt. London, 1854. (Of antiquarian interest.)--=Oxley=, W., Egypt. London, 1884.

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=Palmer=, W., Egyptian Chronicles. London, 1861, 2 vols.--=Parsons=, A. R., New Light from the Great Pyramid. New York, 1894.--=Parthey=, I. F. O., Erdkunde des alten Aegyptens.--=Paturet=, La condition juridique de la femme dans l’ancienne Égypte. Paris, 1886.--=Pensa=, G., Les Cultures de l’Égypte. Paris, 1897.--=Pentaur=, in Brugsch’s Egypt. London, 1881, 2 vols. (The work ascribed to Pentaur is a poem describing the exploits of Ramses II, like the _Battle of Kadesh_. Pentaur, however, is not the author of it, but merely the transcriber of one copy of this poem. See p. 212.)--=Perring=, I. S., Pyramids of Gizeh. London, 1839-1842, 3 vols.--=Perrot= and =Chipiez=, Histoire de l’art dans de l’antiquité. Paris, 1881-1889. (The series of works on ancient art by these French authors constitutes one of the most important contributions to the subject ever written. The works are accessible in an English translation.)--=Petrie=, W. M. F., A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the XVIth Dynasty. London, 1894; Inductive Metrology. London, 1877; Plans, Descriptions, and Theories. London, 1880; The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. London, 1883; Tanis I. London, 1885; Tanis II, Nebesheh and Defenneh. London, 1887; Naukratis I. London, 1886; Racial Portraits, 190 Photographs from the Egyptian Monuments. London, 1888; Historical Scarabs. London, 1889; Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoe. London, 1889; Kahun, Gurob, and Hawara. London, 1890; Tell el Hesy (Lachish). London, 1891; Ten Years’ Diggings. London, 1892; Tell-el-Amarna. London, 1894; Egyptian Tales. London, 1894-1895; Egyptian Decorative Art. London, 1895; Syria and Egypt from the Tell-el-Amarna letters. London, 1898.

_Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie_ was born in 1853 at Charlton, England; D.C.L. Oxford, 1893; LL.D. Edinburgh, 1895; he is at present Professor of Egyptology in University College, London. Professor Petrie is perhaps more widely known to the public at large than any other living Egyptologist. Though still a comparatively young man, he has devoted more than twenty years to almost continuous exploration of the ruins of ancient Egypt. From the very outset he gained a reputation as a discoverer of buried cities, which his subsequent exertions have amply sustained. Professor Petrie comes naturally by the instincts of the explorer, as he is a grandson of Captain Matthew Flinders, who was celebrated for his explorations of the Australian coast at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The recitals of the fabulous wonders of Australia are not more fascinating or more marvellous than the narratives Professor Petrie has been enabled to give of the long lost and long forgotten mysteries of Egypt.

=Piehl=, Deux déesses égyptiennes (in Mélanges de Harlez). Leiden; Inscriptions hiéroglyphiques recueillies en Europe et en Égypte. Leipsic, 1895.--=Poole=, R. S., Cities of Egypt. London, 1882; Egypt. London, 1881.

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=Rawlinson=, G., Egypt and Babylon. London, 1885; Ancient Egypt. London, 1887; History of Ancient Egypt. London, 1881, 2 vols. (Canon Rawlinson’s works on Egypt were perhaps written to round out his series of oriental histories. They are of course based on the authorities, and are at once dependable and entertaining.)--=Regaldi=, L’Egitto antico. Firenze, 1882.--=Renouf=, P. le Page, The Book of the Dead in Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch., Vol. XI, 1894-1896; Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion. London, 1880. (These works, written by the successor of Dr. Birch, and the predecessor of Dr. Budge as Keeper of the Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities at the British Museum, have, of course, the fullest authority. The religious phases of oriental archæology had a peculiar interest for the author, and his writings are confined to this field and the field of philology.)--=Reynier=, L., State of Egypt after the Battle of Heliopolis. London, 1802; De l’Égypte sous la domination des Romains. Paris, 1807.--=Revillout=, Lettres sur les monnaies égyptiennes. Paris, 1895; Mélange sur la métrologie, l’econ. polit. et l’histoire de l’ancienne Égypte. Paris, 1895.--=Riegl=, Zur Frage des Nachlebens der altaegyptischen Kunst in der spätern Antike.--=Robinson=, C. S., Pharaoh of the Bondage and Exodus. New York, 1887.--=Robiou=, F., La religion de l’ancienne Égypte et les influences étrangères. Paris, 1888.--=Rosellini=, I monumenti dell’ Egitto e della Nubia. Pisa, 1832-1844. (The work of one of the most famous pupils of Champollion still has interest and value, though necessarily antiquated in many regards.)--=Rougé=, E. de, Recherches sur les monuments qu’on peut attribuer aux six premières dynasties de Manéthon. Paris, 1866; Études sur divers monuments du règne de Tutmes III, découverts a Thèbes par E. Mariette. Paris, 1861; Géographie ancienne de la Basse-Égypte. Paris, 1890. (The name of De Rougé is permanently associated with the theory that the Phœnician alphabet was derived from an early form of the Egyptian hieratic writing. The original paper in which De Rougé advanced this theory was accidentally destroyed, and the theory did not gain prominence until after the death of the author. Its correctness is still in doubt, though it has able champions.)

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=Salvolini=, F., Campagne de Ramses le Grand contre les Scheta. Paris, 1835. (The work of another famous pupil of Champollion, and innovator in Egyptology.)--=Sayce=, A. H., Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus. London, 1895; Ancient Empires of the East. London, 1844; Records of the Past.--=Schack-Schackenburg=, Aegyptolische Studien. 1894.--=Schiaparelli=, Il libro dei funerali de antichi Egiziani. Torino, 1890.--=Schmidt=, O. P., A Self-verifying Chronological History of Ancient Egypt. Cincinnati, 1889.--=Schweinfurth=, Der Moerissee nach den neuesten Forschungen. In Petermann’s Mitteil. 1893.--=Sethe=, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Alterthumskunde Aegyptens. Leipsic, 1900, 3 parts (in progress).--=Sylvestre de Sacy=, Abd-al-latif, translated by Sacy. Paris, 1810, 3 vols.--=Simaiki=, A. A., La province romaine d’Égypte. Paris, 1892.--=Sharpe=, The Chronology and Geography of Ancient Egypt. London. 1849; History of Egypt to Arab Conquest. London, 1876, 2 vols. (Works that are out of date, though still having considerable value, particularly for the later period of Egyptian history; most entertainingly written.)--=Smith=, P., The Ancient History of the East from Earliest Times to Conquest of Alexander the Great. London, 1871.--=Smyth=, C., Piazzi, Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid. London, 1890.--=Spiegelberg=, W., Studien sum Rechtswesen des Pharaohenreiches der Dynastie XVIII-XXI. Hanover, 1892; Rechnungen aus der Zeit Setis I. Strassburg, 1896; Zur Geographie des alten Aegyptens by Dümichen. Ed. by Spiegelberg. Leipsic, 1894; Die Novelle in alten Aegypten. Strassburg, 1898; Arbeiter und Arbeiterbewegung in Pharaonenreich unter den Ramessiden. Strassburg, 1895; Die erste Erwähnung Israels in eine aegyptischen Text. Berlin Acad., 1896.--=Stangen=, Aegypten. Leipsic, 1882.--=Steindorff=, Aegypten und mykenische Cultur. Berlin, 1892; Grabfunde des mittleren Reiches in den kgl. Museen zu Berlin; Zur Geschichte der Hyksos. Leipzig, 1894; Zur Geschichte der XI Dynastie in Ztschr. für Aegypt. Spr. no. 33. 1895; Blütezeit des Pharaonenreiches. Bielefield, 1900.--=Strabo=, The Geography of Strabo. (Strabo was one of the greatest geographers of antiquity. A somewhat extended reference to his work has been made already, and further notice will be taken of it in a later book.)--=Strauss=, V. von Torney, Der altaegyptische Götterglaube. Heidelberg, 1890, 2 parts.--=Stucken=, Ed. Die Astralmythen der Hebräer, Babylonier und Aegypter. Leipsic.

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=Tiele=, Histoire comparée des anciennes religions et des peuples sémitiques. Paris, 1882.--=Tomkins=, H. G., Campaign of Ramses II against the Kadesh on Orontes. London, 1882.--=Torr=, Cecil, Memphis and Mycenæ and Examination of Egyptian Chronology and its Application to the Early History of Greece. Cambridge.--=Tylor= and =Somers Clarke=, The Tomb of Sebeknekht. London.--=Tylor= and =L. Griffith=, The tomb of el-Paheri at El-Kab. London.

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=Valbuena=, R. F., Egipto y Asiria resucitados. Madrid, 1895.--=Vise=, R. W., Operations carried on at the Pyramids of Gizeh in 1837. London, 1840-1842, 3 vols.

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=Wallis=, H., Egyptian Chemic Art. London, 1900.--=Watkins=, I. W., Popular History of Egypt. London, 1886.--=Watson=, G. H., Art and Antiquities of Ancient Egypt. London, 1843.--=Wendel=, History of Egypt. New York, 1890.--=Wessley=, Studien über das Verhältniss des griechischen zum aegyptischen Recht im Lagidenreich. Leipsic, 1891.--=Wiedemann=, A., The Ancient Egyptian Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul. London, 1895; Aegyptische Geschichte. Gotha, 1884; Geschichte von Altaegypten. Cöln and Stuttgart, 1891; Die Religion der alten Aegypter. München, 1890, and Engl. translation; Religion of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1897; Zum Tierkult der alten Aegypter. Leiden (In Mélanges Ch. de Harlez). (Admirable works combining authoritative treatment with relatively popular presentation.)--=Wilcken=, N., Griechische Ostraca aus Ägypten und Nubien. 1899, 2 vols.--=Wilkinson=, Sir G., Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1854, 2 vols.; The Egyptians in the Time of the Pharaohs. London, 1857; Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1878, 3 vols.

_Sir John Gardner Wilkinson_ was born in 1797 at Hardendale, Westmoreland; died October, 1875. Whoever would know the Egyptian as he was and become conversant with the manners and customs of his everyday life, must turn to the pages of Wilkinson. His Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians has been from the day of its publication the chief source of information on this subject. Wilkinson had the good fortune to enter the field of Egyptian exploration at a time when the subject was new, and he at once made the field of manners and customs of the Egyptians peculiarly his own. He travelled extensively, and lived for long periods continuously in Egypt, studying all accessible monuments of this marvellous people, with the result that he was able in the end to reproduce the story of life in ancient Egypt with something not very far removed from the distinctness of an eye-witness.

=Wilson=, Sir W., Egypt of the Past. London, 1881.--=Woltmann= and =Woermann=, K., History of Painting. London, 1880, 2 vols. (One of the most authoritative works on ancient art.)

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=Young=, T., Account of Recent Discoveries in Hieroglyphics. London, 1823. (Reference to Young’s connection with the discovery of the meaning of the hieroglyphics will be found in Book II, Chapter III.)

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=Zincke=, E. B., Egypt of the Pharaohs and of the Khedives. London, 1873.