Chapter 7

Sxtalo estas fleksebla, sed fero ne estas fleksebla. Ne cxiu kreskajxo estas mangxebla. Vitro estas rompebla kaj travidebla. Via parolo estas tute nekomprenebla, kaj viaj leteroj estas cxiam skribitaj tute nelegeble. La mallumo estas netrapenetrebla. Li rakontis al mi historion tute nekredeblan. Eble mi povos helpi al vi. Cxu vi amas vian patron? Kia demando! kompreneble, ke mi lin amas. Mi kredeble ne povos veni al vi hodiaux, cxar mi pensas, ke mi mem havos hodiaux gastojn. La tablo staras malrekte kaj kredeble baldaux renversigxos. Li faris sian eblon.

Li estas homo ne kredinda. Via ago estas tre lauxdinda. Tiu cxi grava tago restos por mi cxiam memorinda. Gxi estas vesto de granda indo. Gxi ne estas inda je danko. La sxipanaro montrigxas ne inda je sia estro.

Lia edzino estas tre laborema kaj sxparema, sed sxi estas ankaux tre babilema kaj kriema. Li estas tre ekkolerema, kaj ekscitigxas ofte cxe la plej malgranda bagatelo, tamen li estas tre pardonema, li ne portas longe la koleron, kaj li tute ne estas vengxema. Li estas tre kredema, ecx la plej nekredeblajn aferojn, kiujn rakontas al li la plej nekredindaj homoj, li tuj kredas. Li estas tre purema, kaj ecx unu polveron vi ne trovos sur lia vesto. Li estas bonega knabo, sed tre ema kredi spiritojn.

LESSON 45.

Dis-, -um-.

The prefix "dis-" denotes separation or scattering, as "Jxeti", to throw; "disjxeti", to scatter. "Sxiri", to tear; "dissxiri", to tear into bits. "Doni", to give; "disdoni", to distribute.

The suffix "-um-" has no definite meaning. It is used in only a few words, of which the most important are:--

aerumi (from "aero", air), to expose to the air. ventumi ( " "vento", wind), to fan. kolumo ( " "kolo", neck), collar. manumo ( " "mano", hand), cuff. butonumi ( " "butono", button), to button. gustumi ( " "gusto", taste), to taste (something). komunumo ( " "komuna", common), a community. krucumi ( " "kruco", cross), crucify. malvarmumi ( " "malvarma", cold), take cold. mastrumi ( " "mastro", master), keep house. plenumi ( " "plena", full), fulfil. brulumo ( " "bruli", burn), inflammation. kalkanumo ( " "kalkano", heel), heel of boot.

VOCABULARY.

rezultato : result. sxir- : tear. angulo : angle, corner. kvankam : although. tolo : linen. simila : similar. cxemizo : shirt. grava : important. ating- : attain, reach to.

Ni cxiuj kunvenis por priparoli tre gravan aferon; sed ni ne povis atingi ian rezultaton, kaj ni disiris. Malfelicxo ofte kunigas la homojn, kaj felicxo ofte disigas ilin. Mi dissxiris la leteron, kaj disjxetis gxiajn pecetojn en cxiujn angulojn de la cxambro. Post tio cxi oni disiris hejmen. La vojo disiris en kelkaj direktoj.

Mi volonte plenumis lian deziron. En malbona vetero oni povas facile malvarmumi. Li disbutonumis la superveston. Sxi ludis kun sia ventumilo. Cxemizojn, kolumojn, manumojn, kaj ceterajn similajn objektojn oni nomas tolajxo, kvankam ili ne cxiam estas faritaj el tolo.

The suffixes "-on-, -obi-, -op-," have already been explained in Lesson 9.

-Acx-

A new suffix "-acx-" has gradually come into use during the past few years. Its meaning is well shown in the following examples:--"Domo", house; "domacxo", hovel. "Virino", woman; "virinacxo", hag. "Ridi", to laugh; "ridacxi", to grin (maliciously). "Cxevalo", horse; "cxevalacxo", a sorry nag, a screw. "Obstina", persistent, stubborn; "obstinacxa", pig-headed. "Popolo", a people; "popolacxo", populace. "Morti", to die; "mortacxi", to die the death. "Lingvo", language; "lingvacxo", a jargon.

This suffix should only be used sparingly.

JOINING WORDS. CONJUNCTIONS.

Certain words are used merely to join words or sentences. Those already learned are:--

kaj : and. cxu : whether. sed : but. ke : that. cxar : because, for. kvazaux : as if. ankaux : also. kvankam : although. ol : than. almenaux : at least. se : if. tamen : however. aux : or. do : then, therefore.

The following are also useful:--

kaj ... kaj : both ... and. nek ... nek : neither ... nor. aux ... aux : either ... or. ecx se : even if. cxu ... aux : whether ... or. same kiel : the same as. cxu ... cxu : whether ... whether.

EXCLAMATIONS. INTERJECTIONS.

The following are simply exclamations of joy grief, surprise, etc.:--

ah! : aha! ah! kia! : what! ha! : ah! bone! : good! all right! he! : halloo! hey! brave! : bravo! hm! : hm! humph! hura! : hurrah! ho! : oh! vere! : truly! oho! : ho! efektive! : really! ho ve! : alas! adiaux! : goodbye! for! : away! bonvenu! : welcome! fi! : for shame! kompreneble! : of course! nu! : well (now)! vivu! : long live! nu do! : well (now) then! antauxen! : forward! ja! : indeed! cxu vere? : is it true? jen! : there! look! behold! cxu ne? : is it not? bis! : again! encore!

COMPOUND WORDS.

It is often convenient to form compound words, as "posxtkarto", "forpeli", "cxiuminute", "stacidomo", "senmove", "telertuketo". When this is done, the word expressing the principal idea is placed last.

Generally it is sufficient to use the "root" of the qualifying word, but if the sound or sense requires it, the whole word is taken, as "unutaga" means "of one day"; "unuataga", "of the first day."

* * * * *

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN THE SENTENCE.

In English the sense often depends entirely on the order of the words, e.g., the sentence "John saw George" would mean something quite different if reversed--"George saw John." But in Esperanto, thanks to the accusative "n", the endings "a" and "e" for participles, and the pronoun "si", the order of words may be varied without altering the sense. "Georgon vidis Johano" means exactly the same as "Johano vidis Georgon."

But though the meaning can in most cases be understood whatever the order of the words, it is best to adopt the simplest arrangement, and to follow the natural course of thought, which is, first, that about which we think, then that which we think about it. English students may frame their sentences exactly as they would in their own language. In Esperanto, as in English, the arrangement is sometimes altered, either for emphasis, as "Lauxdata estu Dio!" Praised be God!; or to please the ear, as "Oni min admiras", instead of "Oni admiras min", People admire me.

"Note".--Care must be taken in placing the word "ne." Its usual place is before the verb, when it negatives the whole sentence. Study the effect of placing "ne" in different positions in the sentence "Mi deziras vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton", I wish to see John and his brother:--

(i.). "Mi ne deziras vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton", I do not wish to see John and his brother.

(ii.). "Mi deziras ne vidi Johanon kaj lian fraton", I wish not to see John and his brother, "i.e.", I wish to avoid seeing them.

(iii.). "Mi deziras vidi ne Johanon, sed lian fraton", I wish to see not John, but his brother.

(iv.). "Mi deziras vidi Johanon kaj ne lian fraton", I wish to see John and not his brother.

"Ne tute" means "not quite," while "tute ne" means "not at all."

"Jam ne" means "no longer." "Not yet" is "ankoraux ne".

Words which are already international, such as "microscope, telephone, automobile", etc., are adopted unchanged, except as to the spelling and termination, as "mikroskopo, telefono, auxtomobilo."

WORDS USED WITH THE OBJECT.

As already said, when an adjective or participle (or a noun) is added to the object simply as a describing word, it takes "n" like the object, as "Li perdis sian novan libron "("aux", sian libron novan), He lost his new book. "Sxi trankviligis la kriegantan infanon "(aux, "la infanon kriegantan"), She pacified the screaming child. "Li vizitis sian fraton Johanon", He visited his brother John. ("John" shows "which" brother).

But if the adjective, participle, or noun is used not merely to describe, but indirectly to tell something about the object, it does not take "n". A comparison of the following sentences will make this clear:--

1. Li trovis la pomojn maturajn. He found the ripe apples. Li trovis la pomojn maturaj. He found (that) the apples (were) ripe.

2. Li trovis la krucxon rompitan. He found the broken jug. Li trovis la krucxon rompita. He found (that) the jug (was) broken.

3. Li kolorigis la drapon rugxan. He dyed the red cloth. Li kolorigis la drapon rugxa. He dyed the cloth red.

4. Li trancxis (aux faris) la veston tro mallongan. He cut (or made) the too-short coat (the coat that was too short). Li trancxis la veston tro mallonga. He cut the coat (so that it was) too short.

5. Li nomis la knabon mensogisto. He called the boy a liar.

Compare this use of words with the following:--

He made his father angry (or, be angered). "Li kolerigis sian patron", or, "li igis sian patron kolera".

The loss drove him mad. "La perdo frenezigis lin", or, "igis lin freneza".

It rendered the gun useless. "Gxi senutiligis la pafilon", or, "igis la pafilon senutila".

COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO. By Dr. Zamenhof.

A.--Alphabet.

Aa, Bb, Cc, Cxcx, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Gxgx, Hh, Hxhx, Ii, Jj, Jxjx, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Sxsx, Tt, Uu, Uxux, Vv, Zz [Footnote: Names of the letters: a, bo, co, cxo, do, e, fo, go, gxo, ho, hxo, i, jo, jxo, ko, lo, mo, no, o, po, ro, so, sxo, to, u, uxo, vo, zo.]

Remark.--Presses which do not possess the accented letters can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u.

B.--Rules.

(1) There is no indefinite ARTICLE; there is only a definite article ("la"), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers.

Remark.--The use of the article is the same as in the other languages. People who find a difficulty in the use of the article need not at first use it at all.

(2) SUBSTANTIVES have the termination "o". To form the plural the termination "j" is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination "n". Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions (the genitive by "de", the dative by "al", the ablative by "per", or other prepositions according to sense).

(3) The ADJECTIVE ends in "a". Case and number as with the substantive. The Comparative is made by means of the word "pli", the Superlative by "plej"; with the Comparative the conjunction "ol" is used.

(4) The fundamental NUMERALS (they are not declined) are: "unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naux, dek, cent, mil." The tens and hundreds are formed by simple junction of the numerals. To mark the ordinal numerals the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple--the suffix "obl", for the fractional--"on", for the collective--"op", for the distributive--the word "po". Substantival and adverbial numerals can also be used.

(5) Personal PRONOUNS: "mi, vi, li, sxi, gxi" (referring to thing or animal), "si, ni, vi, ili, oni"; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives.

(6) The VERB undergoes no change with regard to person or number. Forms of the verb; time "being" (Present) takes the termination "-as;" time "been" (Past) "-is"; time "about to be" (Future) "-os"; the Conditional mood "-us;" the Ordering mood "-u;" the Indefinite "-i." Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present "-ant;" active past "-int;" active future "-ont;" passive present "-at;" passive past "-it;" passive future "-ot." All forms of the passive are formed by the aid of a corresponding form of the verb "esti" and a passive participle of the required verb; the preposition with the passive is "de."

(7) ADVERBS end in "e;" degrees of comparison as with the adjectives.

(8) ALL the PREPOSITIONS require the nominative.

(9) EVERY word is read as it is written.

(10) The ACCENT is ALWAYS on the penultimate syllable.

(11) COMPOUND WORDS are formed by simple junction of the words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words.

(12) When another NEGATIVE word is present the word "ne" is left out.

(13) In order to show DIRECTION words take the termination of the accusative.

(14) Each PREPOSITION has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition "je" which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition "je" we can also use the accusative without a preposition.

(15) The so-called FOREIGN WORDS, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, merely obtaining the spelling of the latter; but with different words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language.

(16) The FINAL VOWEL of the substantive and of the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe.

* * * * *

COMMON USEFUL EXPRESSIONS.

tio estas, i.e. that is. kaj cetere, k.c. etcetera. kaj tiel plu, k.t.p. and so on. kiel ekzemple, k.ekz. as for example. kiel elbe plej (baldaux) as (soon) as possible. kio ajn okazos whatever happens (shall happen). kondicxe, ke on the condition that. kun la kondicxo, ke on the condition that.

Bonan tagon, sinjoro. Good day, sir. Kiel vi fartas? How do you do? Tre bone, mi dankas. Very well, I thank you. Mi dankas vin. I thank you. Dankon. Thanks. Multe da dankoj. Many thanks. Vi estas tre gxentila (afabla). You are very kind. Vi estas tre kompleza. You are very obliging. Mi malsatas. I am hungry. Mi soifas. I am thirsty. Al mi estas varme (malvarme). I am warm (cold). Kiu estas tie? Estas mi. Who is there? It is I. Sidigxu, mi petas. Be seated, I beg (you). Kun plezuro. With pleasure. Kion vi bezonas? What do you want? Cu vi min komprenas? Do you understand me? Vi estas prava (malprava). You are right (wrong). Tio estas vera. That is true. Estas vera, ke... It is true that... Je kioma horo vi foriros? At what time are you going? Kioma horo estas? What time is it? Kiom kostas tio cxi? How much does this cost? Gxi kostas tri sxilingojn. It costs three shillings. Kie vi estas? Where are you? Kien vi iras? Where are you going? Kian agxon li havas? How old is he? Antaux unu semajno. A week ago. Post du tagoj. In two days. Li venos jxauxdon. He will come on Thursday. Pasigu al mi la panon, Pass me the bread, mi petas vin. I beg you (please). Estas li mem! It is himself! Tiom pli bone So much the better! Oni diras, ke... They say, that... Neniu tion diras. Nobody says that. Kio okazis? What has happened? Cxu vi konas Sinjoron A.? Do you know Mr. A.? Mi scias, kiu li estas, I know who he is, sed mi ne konas lin. but I do not know him. Cxu estas leteroj por mi? Are there letters for me? Rapidu. Be quick. Ne diru tion. Do not say that. Ne faru tion. Do not do that. Kia estas la vetero? What kind of weather is it? Kian veteron ni havas? What kind of weather is it? Pluvas; negxas. It rains; it snows. Pluvis la tutan nokton. It rained all night long. Estas beld, varmege. It is fine, hot. Cxu mi tion faru? Shall I do that?

LETTERS.

(a). Beginnings.

Kara : dear. Patro, amiko, etc. : Mia kara : my dear. father, friend, etc. Estimata : esteemed. Samideano : fellow-thinker. Estiminda : estimable. Kunlaboranto : fellow-worker. Respektinda :respect-worthy. Sinjoro : Sir. Honorinda honourable. Sinjoroj : Gentlemen, Sirs. Sinjorino : Madame, Mrs. Frauxlino : Miss.

(b). Endings.

Kun (koraj, amikaj) salutoj, With (hearty, friendly) greetings. Kun (alta, granda) estimo, With (high, great) esteem. Kun (miaj, cxiuj) bondeziroj, With (my, all) good wishes. Kun (multe da) amo, With (much) love. Via, La via, Yours. Via, (tre) vin amanta, Your (very) loving. Via, tre sincere, fidele, Yours very sincerely, faithfully. Cxiam via, Yours always. Tre sincere via, Very sincerely yours.

KEY TO EXERCISES.

1.

A father and a brother. A lion is an animal. A rose is a flower and a pigeon is a bird. The rose belongs to Theodore. The sun shines. The father is a tailor. Where are the book and the pencil? Here is an apple. On the ground lies a stone. On the window lie a pencil and a pen. The son stands by the father. Here lies the hat of the father (the father's hat). The father is in the room. Before the house is (stands) a tree.

What is a lion? What is a rose? What shines? What is the father? Where is the father? What is on the window? Where is the pen?

Is a lion an animal? Yes, a lion is an animal. Is a rose a bird? No, a rose is not a bird, a rose is a flower.

2.

The father is well. A child is not a mature man. The sky is blue. A lion is strong. The father is good. The hand of John (John's hand) is clean. ("Some", or, "a") paper is white. White paper lies on the table. Here is the young lady's exercise book. In the sky stands (is) the beautiful sun. The paper is very white, but the snow is more white (whiter). Milk is more nutritious than wine. The bread is fresh. The uncle is richer than the brother. Here lies (is) a red rose. The dog is very faithful. The book is new.

3.

(The) birds fly. The song of (the) birds is pleasant. Where are the boys? The fathers are well. Children are not mature men. Lions are strong. John's hands are clean. Here are the young ladies' exercise books. The uncles are richer than the brothers. The dogs are very faithful. White papers lie on the table. In the room are new hats. Where are the sharp knives? Good children are diligent. Here lie (are) pure white delicate lilies. The teeth of lions (lions' teeth) are sharp.

4.

I read. You write. He is a boy, and she is a girl. We are men. You are children. They are Russians. Where are the boys? They are in the garden. Where are the girls? They also are in the garden. Where are the knives ? They are (lie) on the table. The child cries, because it wants to eat. Sir, you are impolite. Gentlemen, you are impolite. Tkey say that (the) truth always conquers. The house belongs to him. I come from (the) grandfather, and I go now to (the) uncle. I am as strong as you. Now I read, you read, and he reads, we all read. You write and the children write, they (you) all sit silent and write.

My dog, you are very faithful. He is my uncle, for my father is his brother. Of all my children, Ernest is the youngest. His father and his brothers are in the garden. Her uncle is in the house. Where are your books ? Our books are (lie) on the table; their pencils and their paper also are (lie) on the table.

Who is in the room ? Who are in the room ? The gentle- man who is reading is my friend. The gentleman to whom you are writing is a tailor. What is lying on the table ?

5.

I see a lion (lions). I read (am reading) a book (books). I love (the) father. I know John. (The) father is not reading a book, but he is writing a letter. I do not like obstinate people. I wish you good-day, sir. Good morning! A joyous festival (a pleasant holiday) (I wish you). What a joyful festival (it is to-day) ! In the day we see the bright sun, and at night we see the pale moon and the beautiful stars. We have newer bread than you. No, you are wrong, sir, your bread is less new (staler) than mine. We call the boy, and he comes. In (the) winter they heat the stoves. When one is rich one has many friends. He loves me, but I do not love him. Mr. P. and his wife love my children very much; I also love theirs very much. I do not know the gentleman who is reading.

6.

Why do you not answer me? Are you deaf or dumb? What are you doing?

The boy drove away the birds. From (the) father I received a book, and from (the) brother I received a pen. (The) father gave me a sweet apple. Here is the apple which I found. Yesterday I met your son, and he politely greeted me. Three days ago (before three days) I visited your cousin, and my visit gave (made) to him pleasure. When I came to him he was sleeping, but I woke him.

I will relate to you a story. Will you tell me the truth? To day is Saturday, and to-morrow will be Sunday. Yesterday was Friday, and the day after to-morrow will be Monday. [Footnote: Notice that in these two sentences "ankoraux" and "iam" express different meanings of the English word "yet."] Have you yet found your watch? I have not yet looked for it; when I have finished (shall finish) my work I will look for my watch, but I fear that I shall not find it again. If you (shall) conquer us, the people will say that only women you conquered. When you (shall) attain the age of fifteen years you will receive the permission.

7.

I love myself, you love yourself, he loves himself, and every man loves himself. I take care of her (so) as I take care of myself, but she takes no care at all of herself, and does not look after herself at all. My brothers had guests to-day; after supper our brothers went with the guests out of their (our brothers') house and accompanied them as far as their (the guests') house. I washed myself in my room, and she washed herself in her room. The child was looking for its doll; I showed the child where its doll lay. She related to him her adventure. She returned to her father's palace. Her flowers she tended not. My brother said to Stephen, that he loved him more than himself.

8.

Two men can do more than one. I have only one mouth, but I have two ears. He walks out with three dogs. He did everything with the ten fingers of his hands. Of her many children some are good and others bad. Five and seven make twelve. Ten and ten make twenty. Four and eighteen make twenty-two. Thirty and forty-five make seventy-five. One thousand eight hundred and ninety-three. He has eleven children. Sixty minutes make one hour, and one minute consists of sixty seconds.

8a.