Chapter 2

This use of "n" renders clear sentences that are not clear in English. "John loves Mary more than George" may mean "more than John loves George" or "more than George loves Mary." In Esperanto it is quite clear. "Johano amas Marion, pli ol Georgo" means "more than George loves Mary," because "Georgo" is the subject of the second (elliptical) sentence, but "Johano amas Marion, pli ol Georgon" means "more than John loves George," because the final "n" in Georgon shows this to be not the subject.

There are cases, however, in which it is not necessary to add "n", the noun or pronoun being distinguished from the subject in another way. Examples are found in the first exercise:--"Sur la tero" kusxas sxtono, "On the ground" lies a stone. "Antaux la pordo" staras arbo, "Before the door" stands a tree. Notwithstanding their position, "ground" and "door" are seen to be not the subject, because before them are the words "on," "before," which connect them with the rest of the sentence--it is "on the ground," "before the door." So with other sentences.

The words "on", "before", and others given [in Lesson 26] are called PREPOSITIONS ("pre" = before). The noun or pronoun which follows them can never be the subject of the sentence.

Remember, then, that

"N" is added to every noun and pronoun, "other than the subject", unless it has a preposition before it. [Footnote: (i.). The explanation usually given for the use of final "n" is, that "n" is added to nouns and pronouns (a) in the Accusative Case (the direct object), (b) when the preposition is omitted. The explanation given above seems to me, however, to be much simpler. (ii.). Another use of final "n" is given later [Lesson 12, Lesson 26] ]

When the noun takes "n", any adjective which belongs to it must also take "n", as, "Li donas al mi belan rugxan floron", He gives me a beautiful red flower. "Li donas al mi belajn rugxajn florojn", He gives me beautiful red flowers.

VOCABULARY.

letero : letter. mateno : morning. litero : letter of alphabet. multaj : many. festo : festival, holiday. obstina : obstinate. tago : day. gxoja : joyful, joyous. nokto : night. hela : bright, clear.

amas : loves. pala : pale. vidas : sees. deziras : desires, wishes. konas : knows. eraras : errs, is wrong. havas : has, possesses. vokas : calls. luno : moon. hejtas : heats. stelo : star. hodiaux : to:day. vintro : winter. malpli : less. forno : stove. kiam : when. edzino : wife. kia : what (kind).

Mi vidas leonon (leonojn). Mi legas libron (librojn). Mi amas la patron. Mi konas Johanon. La patro ne legas libron, sed li skribas leteron. Mi ne amas obstinajn homojn. Mi deziras al vi bonan tagon, sinjoro. Bonan matenon! Gxojan feston (mi deziras al vi). Kia gxoja festo (estas hodiaux)! En la tago ni vidas la helan sunon, kaj en la nokto ni vidas la palan lunon kaj la belajn stelojn. Ni havas pli fresxan panon, ol vi. Ne, vi eraras, sinjoro, via pano estas malpli fresxa, ol mia. Ni vokas la knabon, kaj li venos. En la vintro oni hejtas la fornojn. Kiam oni estas ricxa, oni havas multajn amikojn. Li amas min, sed mi lin ne amas. Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn; mi ankaux tre amas iliajn (infanojn). Mi ne konas la sinjoron, kiu legas.

LESSON 6.

We have seen already (Lesson 1) that the words which end in "-as" express the idea of "doing" (action) or of "being" (state), and that they assert that this action or state is going on, or is a custom, at the present time, as "Mi vidas", I see; "Sxi estas", She is; "Ili suferas", They suffer, they are suffering.

To say that the action or state took place at some "past" time, "-is" is used, as "Mi vidis", I saw; "Sxi estis", She was; "Ili suferis", They suffered, they were suffering.

To say that the action or state will take place at some time to come, in the future, "-os" is used, as, "Mi vidos", I shall see; "Sxi estos", She will be; "Ili suferos", They will suffer, they will be suffering.

(Words which assert something, or which express the idea of doing or of being, are called VERBS).

(The root only of the verbs will now be given in the Vocabulary without the termination).

VOCABULARY.

historio : history. dorm- : sleep. kuzo : cousin. vek- : wake. plezuro : pleasure. sercx- : seek. horlogxo : clock. fin- : end. laboro : work. tim- : fear. popolo : a people. ating- : reach to. virino : woman. surda : deaf. agxo : age. muta : dumb. jaro : year. dolcxa : sweet. permeso : permission. tri : three. respond- : answer. dek-kvin : fifteen. far- : do, make. kial : why. forpel- : drive away. hieraux : yesterday. ricev- : receive, get. morgaux : to-morrow. don- : give. antaux : before. trov- : find. post : after. renkont- : meet. jam : already. salut- : greet, salute. jam ne : no more. rakont- : relate, tell. ankoraux : still, yet. vizit- : visit.

Kial vi ne respondas al mi? Cxu vi estas surda aux muta? Kion vi faras?

La knabo forpelis la birdojn. De la patro mi ricevis libron, kaj de la frato mi ricevis plumon. La patro donis al mi dolcxan pomon. Jen estas la pomo, kiun mi trovis. Hieraux mi renkontis vian filon, kaj li gxentile salutis min. Antaux tri tagoj mi vizitis vian kuzon, kaj mia vizito faris al li plezuron. Kiam mi venis al li, li dormis, sed mi lin vekis.

Mi rakontos al vi historion. Cxu vi diros al mi la veron? Hodiaux estas sabato, kaj morgaux estos dimancxo. Hieraux estis vendredo, kaj postmorgaux estos lundo. Cxu vi jam trovis vian horlogxon? Mi gxin ankoraux ne sercxis; kiam mi finos mian laboron, mi sercxos mian horlogxon, sed mi timas, ke mi gxin jam ne trovos. Se vi nin venkos, la popolo diros, ke nur virinojn vi venkis. Kiam vi atingos la agxon de dek-kvin jaroj, vi ricevos la permeson.

LESSON 7.

Confusion is apt to occur in English in the use of the words "him, her, it, them; his, hers, its, their", e.g., "John loves his brother and his children." Whose children, John's or his brother's? "The boys brought to their fathers their hats." Whose hats, the boys' or their fathers'? "She gave her sister her book." Whose book? Her own or her sister's?

This confusion is avoided in Esperanto by the use of, the pronoun "si" ("sin"), meaning "himself, herself, itself, themselves", and "sia," meaning "his own, her own, its own, their own."

"Si" ("sin, sia") refers to the "subject" of the sentence in which it occurs; therefore in the sentence "John loves his brother and his son," it must be "Johano amas sian fraton kaj sian filon" if it is his own (John's) son, because John is the subject, but we must say "lian filon" if the brother's son is meant. "La knaboj alportis al siaj patroj siajn cxapelojn" means "The boys brought to their fathers their own (the boys') hats," because "boys" is the subject, but if we mean "the fathers' hats" it must be "iliajn cxapelojn."

"She gave to her sister her book" must be "Sxi donis al sia fratino sian libron" if it were her own book, but "Sxi donis al sia fratino sxian libron" if it were her sister's book. "Li diris al si"... means "He said to himself," but "Li diris al li" means that he said it to another person.

"Si", "sia", can only "refer to" the subject, it cannot be the subject itself or any part of it; therefore we must say "Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn", because the subject is "Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino."

"Mem," self, is only used for emphasis, "e.g.", "Mi mem," my (own) self.

VOCABULARY.

gasto : guest. montr- : show. vespero : evening. fleg- : tend, take care of mangxo : meal. re-ven- : come back. pupo : doll. pri : concerning, about. aventuro : adventure. gxis : until, as far as. palaco : palace. tute : quite, wholly. zorg- : take care of. tute ne : not at all. gard- : guard. kun : with. am- : love. el : out of. akompan- : accompany. el-ir- : go out of. lav- : wash.

Mi amas min mem, vi amas vin mem, li amas sin mem kaj cxiu homo amas sin mem. Mi zorgas pri sxi tiel, kiel mi zorgas pri mi mem, sed sxi mem tute ne zorgas pri si, kaj tute sin ne gardas. Miaj fratoj havis hodiaux gastojn; post la vespermangxo niaj fratoj eliris kun la gastoj el sia domo kaj akompanis ilin gxis ilia domo. Mi lavis min en mia cxambro, kaj sxi lavis sin en sia cxambro. La infano sercxis sian pupon; mi montris al la infano, kie kusxas gxia pupo. [Footnote: Notice the use of the present "kusxas," "lies", after the past "montris," "showed", because at the time the action of "showing" took place the action of "lying" was then actually going on.]

Sxi rakontis al li sian aventuron. Sxi revenis al la palaco de sia patro. Siajn florojn sxi ne flegis. Mia frato diris al Stefano, ke li amas lin pli, ol sin mem.

LESSON 8.

The Cardinal Numbers are:--

unu : 1 kvar : 4 sep : 7 dek : 10 du : 2 kvin : 5 ok : 8 cent : 100 tri : 3 ses : 6 naux : 9 mil : 1,000

The numbers above 10 are written and read exactly as they are set down in figures:--11, dek unu; 12, dek du; 13, dek tri; 19, dek naux. The "tens" are written as one word, 20, dudek; 30, tridek; 90, nauxdek; 23, dudek tri; 47, kvardek sep; 85, okdek kvin; 136, cent tridek ses; 208, ducent (as one word) ok; 359, tricent kvindek naux; 1,001, mil unu; 2,877, dumil okcent sepdek sep; 1907, mil nauxcent sep.

Notice that there is a separate word for each figure except 0, nulo.

VOCABULARY.

busxo : mouth. forges- : forget. orelo : ear. kre- : create. fingro : finger. estu : should be. horo : hour. facile : easily. minuto : minute. sankta : holy. sekundo : second. unuj : some. monato : month. alia : other. semajno : week. cxio : everything, all. dato : date (of month, etc.). multe : much, many. pov- : can, be able. per : by means of, through, with. promen- : take a walk. nur : only. konsist- : consist. malbona : bad. elekt- : choose, elect. Kristnaska Tago : Christmas Day.

Januaro : January. Julio : July. Februaro : February. Auxgusto : August. Marto : March. Septembro : September. Aprilo : April. Oktobro : October. Majo : May. Novembro : November. Junio : June. Decembro : December.

Du homoj povas pli multe fari, ol unu. Mi havas nur unu busxon, sed mi havas du orelojn. Li promenas kun tri hundoj. Li faris cxion per la dek fingroj de siaj manoj. El sxiaj multaj infanoj unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj. Kvin kaj sep faras dek du. Dek kaj dek faras dudek. Kvar kaj dek ok faras dudek du. Tridek kaj kvardek kvin faras sepdek kvin. Mil okcent nauxdek tri. Li havas dek unu infanojn. Sesdek minutoj faras unu horon, kaj unu minuto konsistas el sesdek sekundoj.

8A.

The Ordinal Numbers, first, second, etc., are formed by adding "a" to the Cardinal Numbers, as "unua", first; "dua", second; "tria", third; "kvara", fourth; "deka", tenth; "centa", hundredth; "mila", thousandth. The compound numbers are joined together by hyphens, and "a" is added to the last, as "dek-unua", eleventh; "la tridek-nauxa pagxo", the thirty-ninth page; la "cent-kvardek-kvina psalmo", the 145th psalm. Being adjectives, the Ordinal Numbers take the plural "j" and accusative "n" when necessary.

The Ordinals are used to tell the hour, as "Estas la trio, horo", It is 3 o'clock. The Cardinal Numbers are used for the minutes, as "A quarter past three" is "La tria horo kaj dek-kvin"; "Ten minutes to five," "La kvara horo kaj kvindek".

Januaro estas la unua monato de la jaro, Aprilo estas la kvara, Novembro estas la dek-unua, kaj Decembro estas la dek-dua. La dudeka (tago) de Februaro estas la kvindek-unua tago de la jaro. La sepan tagon de la semajno Dio elektis, ke gxi estu pli sankta, ol la ses unuaj tagoj. Kion Dio kreis en la sesa tago? Kiun daton ni havas hodiaux? Hodiaux estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto. Kristnaska Tago estas la dudek-kvina (tago) de Decembro, Novjara Tago estas la unua de Januaro. Oni ne forgesas facile sian unuan amon.

LESSON 9.

The names of certain quantities are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding "o", as "dekduo", a dozen; "dudeko", a score; "cento", a hundred; "milo", a thousand. These names, as well as names of quantities generally, require to be followed by "da", of, as "dekduo da birdoj", a dozen (of) birds, but "dekdu birdoj", twelve birds; "dudeko da pomoj", a score of apples; "cento da sxafoj", or "cent sxafoj", a hundred sheep; "milo da homoj", a thousand people; "miloj da homoj", thousands of people.

When these expressions form the object of the verb, it is the name of the number which takes "-n", not the noun which follows "da", as "Li acxetis dudekon da sxafoj", He bought a score of sheep.

For "firstly, secondly", etc., "-e" is added to the number, as "unue", firstly; "kvine", fifthly; "deke", tenthly. (See Lesson 12).

VOCABULARY.

urbo : town. acxet- : buy. logxanto : inhabitant. dank- : thank. kulero : spoon. pet- : beg, request. forko : fork. bezon- : want, need. mono : money. kost- : cost. prunto : loan. poste : afterwards. metro : metre. tiu cxi : this. sxtofo : stuff. por : for. franko : franc (about 10d.). re- : prefix, meaning again atakanto : assailant. or back. pago : payment. tial : therefore. miliono : a million. aux : or. prunt- : lend. da : of (after a quantity).

Mi havas cent pomojn. Mi havas centon da pomoj. Tiu cxi urbo havas milionon da logxantoj. Mi acxetis dekduon da kuleroj, kaj du dekduojn da forkoj. Mil jaroj (aux, milo da jaroj) faras miljaron.

Unue mi redonas al vi la monon, kiun vi pruntis al mi; due mi dankas vin por la prunto; trie mi petas vin ankaux poste prunti al mi, kiam mi bezonos monon.

9A.

To express a certain part or fraction, "-on-" is added to the number specifying what part, as 1/2, unu "duono"; 1/3, unu "triono"; 1/4, unu "kvarono"; 1/10, unu "dekono"; 1/1000 unu "milono"; 1/1000000, unu "milionono". These words, being nouns, take "j" and "n" when required--3/10, "tri dekonoj"; 27/200, "dudek-sep ducentonoj"; 19/1000, "deknaux milonoj. Mi mangxis tri kvaronojn de la kuko", I ate three-quarters of the cake (see Lesson 35).

To express so many times a number "-obl-" is added to the number, as "duobla", double; "dekoble", ten times; "trioble kvar estas (or "faras") dekdu", three times four are twelve; "sepoble ok faras kvindek ses", seven times eight make fifty-six.

To express "by twos, by tens", etc., "-op-" is added to the number, as "duope", by twos, or two together; "dekope", by tens; "kvindekope", by fifties, fifty together, or fifty at a time.

Tri estas duono de ses, ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek. Kvar metroj da tiu cxi sxtofo kostas naux frankojn, tial du metroj kostas kvar kaj duonon frankojn (aux da frankoj). Unu tago estas tricent-sesdek-kvinono, aux tricent-sesdek-sesono de jaro.

Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin. Por cxiu tago mi ricevas kvin frankojn, sed por la hodiauxa tago mi ricevis duoblan pagon, t.e. (= tio estas) dek frankojn.

Tiuj cxi du amikoj promenas cxiam duope. Kvinope ili sin jxetis sur min, sed mi venkis cxiujn kvin atakantojn.

LESSON 10.

VERBS (continued), -i, -u.

In the examples already given the verbs ending in "-as", "-is", "-os" express "action" or "being" ("state") going on in present, past, or future time, as "Mi skribas", I am writing; "Li legis", He read; "Ni iros", We shall go.

If we wish merely to express the idea of action or state indefinitely, without reference to any time or any subject, the verb must end in "-i," as "Vivi", To live; "Mi deziras lerni", I wish to learn; "Ni devas labori", We must work.

(This is called the INDEFINITE or INFINITIVE Mood (manner of expression), because not limited by reference to time or subject).

To give an "order" or "command", or to express "will, desire, purpose", etc., the verb must end in "u", as "Donu al mi panon", Give (to) me bread; "Iru for", Go away; "Estu felicxa", May you be happy! "Vivu la regxo!" (Long) live the king!

In such cases as Tell "him to come", I want "you to sing", Allow "her to speak", we have to use a second sentence with the verb ending in "u", and beginning with "ke", that, as "Diru al li, ke li venu", Tell (say to) him, that he come; "Mi deziras, ke vi kantu", I wish, that you sing; "Permesu al sxi, ke sxi parolu", Allow her, that she speak. Sentences like the last are often contracted, only the last subject and verb being used, as "Sxi parolu", Let her speak; "Gxi kusxu", Let it lie; "Ni iru", Let us go; "Ili dormu", Let them sleep. "Cxu vi volas ke mi tion faru?" Do you wish me to do that? "Cxu mi tion faru?" Shall I do that?

VOCABULARY.

nomo : name. rajd- : ride. vesto : coat, clothing. las- : let, leave. kandelo : candle. kur- : run. dometo : cottage. parol- : speak. akvo : water. viv- : live, have life. spegulo : looking-glass. rest- : rest, remain. est- : be. honesta : honest. tusx- : touch. inda : worthy. auxskult- : listen. atenta : attentive. pardon- : pardon. kara : dear. uz- : use. gaja : gay, cheerful. ordon- : order. tia : such. babil- : chatter. longa : long. send- : send. sincera : sincere. trink- : drink. for : away, forth. vol- : will, wish. forte : strongly. bat- : beat. sole : alone. kuragx- : have courage

Donu al la birdoj akvon, cxar ili volas trinki. Aleksandro ne volas lerni, kaj tial mi batas Aleksandron. Kiu kuragxas rajdi sur leono? Mi volis lin bati, sed li forkuris de mi.

Al leono ne donu la manon. Rakontu al mia juna amiko belan historion. Diru al la patro, ke mi estas diligenta. Diru al mi vian nomon. Ne skribu al mi tiajn longajn leterojn. Montru al mi vian novan veston. Infano, ne tusxu la spegulon. Karaj infanoj, estu cxiam honestaj. Ne auxskultu lin.

Li diras, ke mi estas atenta. Li petas, ke mi estu atenta. Ordonu al li, ke li ne babilu. Petu lin, ke li sendu al mi kandelon. La dometo estas inda, ke vi gxin acxetu. Sxi forte deziris, ke li restu viva.

Li venu, kaj mi pardonos al li. Ni estu gajaj, ni uzu bone la vivon, cxar la vivo ne estas longa. Li ne venu sole, sed alvenu kun sia plej bona amiko. Mi jam havas mian cxapelon; nun sercxu vi vian.

LESSON 11.

VERBS (continued), -us.

Sometimes we want to express a "supposition", to say that something "would" take place, supposing that something else, which is not likely to occur, were to do so, or that something "would have" taken place if something else which did not occur had done so. In this case the verb must end with "-us", as, If I were well (which I am not) I should be happy (which also I am not), "Se mi estus sana, mi estus felicxa". If he knew (supposition) that I am here (a fact) he would immediately come to me (supposition), "Se li scius, ke mi estas tie cxi, li tuj venus al mi". Compare the two following sentences:-- (i.). "Kvankam vi estas ricxa, mi dubas, cxu vi estas felicxa", Though you are (in fact) rich, I doubt whether you are (in fact) happy, (ii.). "Kvankam vi estus ricxa, mi dubas, cxu, vi estus felicxa", Though (supposing that) you were rich, I doubt whether you would be happy.

VOCABULARY.

lernanto : pupil. pen- : endeavour. leciono : lesson. imit- : imitate, instruanto : teacher, kvazaux : as if. sci- : know. io : something. pun- : punish. efektive : really. estim- : esteem. supren : upwards. lev- : lift, raise. kvankam : though. ten- : hold, keep. se : if.

Se la lernanto scius bone sian lecionon, la instruanto lin ne punus. Se vi scius, kiu li estas, vi lin pli estimus. Ili levis unu manon supren, kvazaux ili ion tenus. Se mi efektive estus bela, aliaj penus min imiti. Ho! se mi jam havus la agxon de dekkvin jaroj!

LESSON 12.

When we tell of someone doing a certain action we often want to allude to some circumstance concerning that action, such as the time, or place, or manner in which it was done, that is, when, or where, or how it was done.

In the sentences--Yesterday I met your son, "Hieraux mi renkontis vian filon"; He will go in the evening, "Li iros vespere"; They sat there, "Ili sidis tie"; She will remain at home, "Sxi restos hejme"; Good children learn diligently, "Bonaj infanoj lernas diligente"; I will do it with pleasure, "Mi faros gxin plezure", the words "hieraux, vespere", show the time, "tie, hejme", show the place, and "diligente, plezure", show the manner of the action.

(Because these words relate to the verb they are called ADVERBS).

Adverbs may be formed from any word whose sense admits of it, and especially from adjectives, by means of the termination "e", as "bona", good, "bone", well; "antaux" before, "antauxe", previously or formerly; "mateno", morning, "matene", in the morning; "sekvi", to follow, "sekve", consequently.

When we want the adverb to show "direction towards" any place, time, etc., either actually or figuratively, "n" is added, as "Li alkuris hejmen", He ran home. "Ili levis unu manon supren", They raised one hand upwards. "Antauxen"! Forward! ("n" is also added to nouns to show direction towards. "Li eniris en la domon", He entered into the house).

Some adverbs are used with adjectives and other adverbs to show the "degree" of the quality, quantity, etc., as The paper is "very" white, La papero estas "tre" blanka. "Too" much speaking tires him, La "tro" multa parolado lacigas lin. I am "as" strong "as" you, Mi estas "tiel" forta, "kiel" vi (estas forta). He came "very" early, Li venis "tre" frue.

The following words are in themselves adverbs, and need no special ending:--

VOCABULARY.