part I., pp. 106-109; Vol. VI., part I., pp. 144-146.

[37] In reality, the deficit is far greater, inasmuch as a part of the receipts came from the produce raised on rented land. It must also be noticed that taxes are not included in the expenses.

[38] This can be inferred from the table on the next page:

+--------------+--------------------+---------+------------+ | | Farmers buying rye | | | | | and flour. | To the | Deficit of | | +--------+-----------+ amount | farming in | | Districts. | |Percentage | of |the district| | |Number. | to the | rubles. | (rubles). | | | |population.| | | +--------------+--------+-----------+---------+------------+ |Korotoyak | 3,368 | 16 | 31,481 | 42,310 | |Nizhnedevitzk | 7,238 | 36 | 84,473 | 70,103 | +--------------+--------+-----------+---------+------------+

_Ibid._, Vol. V., part I., p. 107, columns 89, 92, 93; Vol. VI., part I., p. 145, col. 151, 154, 155. The quantity of bread consumed by a peasant family in a year amounting to 57 _poods_ upon an average (l. c., vol. IV., part I., p. 97, col. 75-76, total), the deficit of bread in a year of ordinary crops figures as follows:

_Households buying _Deficit of _Districts._ bread, per cent._ bread, per cent._

Ostrogozhsk 58 54 Zadonsk 41 44

(_Ibid._, Vol. II., part I., p. 223, col. 58, 59; Vol. IV., part I., p. 97, col. 77-82.)

[39] Cf. _Statistical Reports for Borisoglebsk District, Gubernia of Tamboff_, Appendix, pp. 86-87. Every budget was made out upon the statement of the householder, in the presence of his neighbors, who were thoroughly cognizant of the income and expenses of the house; the data are therefore perfectly trustworthy. (_Ibid._, and also page 28.) The budgets are produced in full in the Appendix below.

[40] 1 ruble in gold = $0.80. Still there is no gold in circulation in Russia. The paper ruble, since the Turkish war of 1877-78, is worth only 60 per cent. of its nominal value, _i. e._, 1.00 paper ruble = $0.50. The purchasing power of one ruble is however equal to that of one dollar in New York.

[41] CONSUMPTION.

+----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ |Householders in | Rubles. | Per cent. | | the _gubernia_ +--------+--------+--------+--------+ | of Tamboff. | Own | Market | Own | Market | | |produce.|produce.|produce.|produce.| +----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ |Gabriel Trupoff | 309.00 | 166.71 | 65 | 35 | |Kosma Abramoff | 586.80 | 416.45 | 59 | 41 | +----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

Taxes and rents are not included. Should we count all expenses, the figures would look as follows:

TOTAL EXPENDED.

+----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | | Rubles. | Per cent. | | +--------+--------+--------+--------+ | Householders. | Own | Market | Own | Market | | |produce.|produce.|produce.|produce.| +----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ |Gabriel Trupoff | 309.00 | 219.21 | 59 | 41 | |Kosma Abramoff | 586.80 | 714.45 | 45 | 55 | +----------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

[42]

+--------------+-----------+--------------------+---------------------+ |Districts in | Households| Households selling | Households consuming| |the _gubernia_| buying in | produce. | their | | of Voronezh. |the market.| | total produce. | | | +--------+-----------+---------+-----------+ | | | Number.| Per cent. | Number. | Per cent. | +--------------+-----------+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+ |Zadonsk | 15,528 | 8,094 | 51 | 7,610 | 49 | |Korotoyak | 20,232 | 18,769 | 93 | 1,463 | 7 | |Nizhnedevitzk | 20,051 | 18,558 | 93 | 1,493 | 7 | +--------------+-----------+--------+-----------+---------+-----------+

Those households which purchased in the market without selling produce, earned the necessary money by selling their own labor force, which is shown by figures in the same _Reports_. (L. c.)

[43] Taxes constitute but a minor part--though a very considerable one--of the money expenditure; and the receipts drawn from sale of produce exceed by far the sum paid in taxes. The respective items are contrasted in the following table:

+--------------+--------------------+-----------+-----------------+ | Districts in | Money expenditure | Taxes | Receipts from | |the _gubernia_| for the needs of | (rubles). | sale of | | of Voronezh. |the farmer (rubles).| |produce (rubles).| +--------------+--------------------+-----------+-----------------+ |Zadonsk | 784,061 | 271,729 | 390,178 | |Korotoyak | 1,017,727 | 504,608 | 1,280,206 | |Nizhnedevitzk | 1,069,013 | 511,285 | 1,326,110 | +--------------+--------------------+-----------+-----------------+

[44] _Cf._ Table II., in the Appendix. In this table, land and stock, the principal instruments of production in Russian agriculture, give the comparative standard of the peasant’s life.

[45] At the time of the reform it was ostentatiously declared by the government that the person of the serf would be freed without any compensation to the master.

[46]

_Households, _Land, per cent._ per cent._

Ranenburg 91.6 86.9 Dankoff 83.8 73.8

[47] _Cf._ the Table of the Distribution of Arrears, in the Appendix to this essay.

[48] In addition a tax assessed _per capita_ is levied upon the lands of the peasants for the expenses of the State.

[49] _Cf._ _Reports_, Vol. II., part I., preface, p. 7.

[50] _Cf._ above page 16.

[51] The maximum of arrears reached, in three communities, the enormous sum of 65 rubles to an average household. This means complete destruction of independent farming. Let us quote some examples, by way of illustration:

1. The community of former serfs of Mr. Balk, village and bailiwick Karpofka, district of Ranenburg: The arrears amount to 67.90 rubles from each householder. Out of the total number of 51 householders there are but 24 who cultivate their lots personally. Only three among them have two horses, the rest must do with one, and 26 (one-half) have no working animals at all. One householder among these 26 has a cow; the rest have neither horse nor cow. There are likewise only 13 cows to be distributed among the 24 better-off householders who personally cultivate their farms. Only one pig is raised in the village, and 87 sheep--that is to say, less than two sheep, upon an average, to each household. This means that the peasants have no meat on their tables, and most of the children no milk. 10 “householders” (one-fifth of the village) have neither houses nor land; they lease their lots in order to pay their taxes, and, in all probability, seeing the coincidence of the figures, they have no cattle either. The yield of rye is to the seed as 3 to 1, and that of oats as 2 to 1 (_loc. cit._, Vol. II., tables, pp. 56-61). In 1864 many peasants’ chattels in this village were sold for arrears. The majority of the peasants go a-begging (App., pp. 286-287), and certainly are very little afraid of public sale for _où il n’y a rien, le roi perd son droit_. Neither is flogging endowed with any creative power. Yet, inasmuch as the community is responsible _in solido_ for the payment of the taxes, it was the minority who had to pay, in addition to their own arrears, those of the beggars. Seeing the extent of their wealth, it is not perhaps too pessimistic to presume that in this year 1892 perfect equality reigns in place of the old distinction between minority and majority.

2. Community of former serfs of Mr. Novikoff, in the same village, in arrears for 46.30 rubles to each household, _i. e._, for about three terms of payment. Soon after the emancipation two great public sales of their chattels took place, the sales being to satisfy arrears in the payment of the _taille_. Year in and year out, from 20 to 30 householders have their cattle and buildings sold at public auction to satisfy arrears of taxes. 23 families out of the whole number of 245 (_i. e._, 9 per cent.) have lost their shanties; 105, or 43 per cent., have no horses; and 84 among them, or more than one-third of the village, have also no cows. 123 families, _i. e._, one half of the village, do not cultivate their lots themselves (or cultivate only a part), either hiring their neighbors to do the work, or leasing their lots for the mere payment of the taxes. The wealthier half numbers but 60 householders (_i. e._, one-fourth of the village), who own two or more horses, and can be regarded as belonging 10 to the type of _bonus pater familias_ (_hozyaïslvenniy mushik_). The rest have but one horse, and some of them no cow. “They live but poorly,” explains the _Appendix_ (l. c., p. 286).

3. Community of former serfs of Messrs. Muromtzeff, village Durofshtchino, bailiwick Vednofskaya, of the same district. The arrears amount in an average to 42.70 rubles to each householder. The community may serve as an example of the astounding capacity for growth of the Russian peasant’s wool after he has been shorn like a sheep, as the great Russian satirist has it (_Playwork Manikins_, by M. E. Saltykoff). Indeed, in 1881 all the cows in the village were sold for arrears by the _mir_; in 1882 the statisticians found 38 householders, each of whom was again in possession of a cow. However, notwithstanding this capacity of accommodation, in which the Russian peasant approaches the lowest zoölogical species, the village in question is still far from prosperous. Among the 64 families there are 12, _i. e._, about one-fifth, who own neither house nor cattle, and hold no land, having either returned their lots to the community or leased them for payment of the taxes, which comes to the same thing. On the other hand, there are but 27 households, _i. e._, 42 per cent., who maintain a normal standing, _i. e._, have not less than two horses and one cow, and cultivate all the land in their possession. (Cf. _Tables_, pp. 194-199. No. 29; _App._, p. 329.)

[52] _Ibid._, Vol. II., part I., p. 264; part II., p. 197. There are in both districts only ten communities in which the taxes absorb the entire rent, and only seven communities of former serfs (out of 562) in which the taxes exceed the rent. On the other hand, there are only 17 communities where the difference is above three rubles; and the maximum reaches 13 rubles in a community of former State peasants who own a tract of forest in the district of Dankoff (_Ibid._, pp. 31, 210, No. 8). The proportion of taxes to rent in this community is as 9.5 to 22.5, _i. e._, the taxes absorb 42 per cent. of the rent in the most favored community. What would the New York landlord or the American farmer say, to such a rate of taxation?

[53]

_Districts._ _Percentage of families owning_

_No horse._ _Neither horse nor cow._ Ranenburg 36 25 Dankoff 34 25

(_Cf._ _Reports_, Vol. II., part I., p. 255; part II., p. 189.)

[54] The numbers designate communities.

[55] In these transitional communities labor agreements for pasture are met with side by side with money contracts. In one case a very patriarchal form of relations was observed. The community was admitted to the pasture of the neighboring village for a reception yearly tendered to the latter. (_Reports_, Vol. II., part I., p. 328, No. 27.)

[56] Some cases of communal tenure are not included in the tables of the _Reports_, though mentioned in the Appendices; I have added the extent of this tenure, which makes the difference between my totals and those of the tables.

[57] The numbers of the two columns under this heading do not correspond, since land is besides rented individually in those communities where tenure by the _mir_ or by partnerships is practiced.

[58] _Cf._ _Forms of Agricultural Production in Russia_, p. 43 _et passim_, by Mr. Euzhakoff, an admirer of Mr. Henry George. The paper was published in the magazine _Otetchestvenniya Zapiski_, 1882.

[59] In the district of Ryazañ, where communal tenure is by far more extended than in the districts under review, we find a few cases of communal tenure among the former State peasants; yet the extent of land so held is so small as to cut no figure at all:

_Communal tenure._ _Classes of tenants._ _Dessiatines._ _Per cent._

Former serfs 9924 96 Former State peasants 456 4 ---- -- Total 10380 100

(_Cf._ _Statistical Reports for the Gubernia of Ryazañ_, Vol. I., sec. II., table 3, f.; p. 57.)

[60] Rented land is taken into account only in those communities in which the area cut off at the time of the emancipation could be ascertained by the statisticians. It may be further stated that only such land is here taken into account as is yearly cultivated.

[61] AVERAGE HOLDING (IN DESSIATINES).

_Communal._ _Individual._ Ranenburg 88 3 Dankoff 97 3

[62]

+-----------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ | | Arable. | Meadow. | | Average rent paid for +----------+--------+----------+--------+ | 1 dessiatine. |Ranenburg.|Dankoff.|Ranenburg.|Dankoff.| +-----------------------------+----------+--------+----------+--------+ |By the community rubles | 13.11 | 9.76 | 10.86 | 7.74 | |By individuals in the same | | | | | | communities | 19.82 | 13.47 | .. | .. | |By individuals throughout the| | | | | | district | 16.62 | 12.76 | 15.91 | 7.59 | +-----------------------------+----------+--------+----------+--------+

[63]

+------------------------------+--------------------+------------+ | | Quantity of stock | | | | to one household. | | | +-------+------------+“Horseless,”| | Districts and classes. | |All kinds of| per cent. | | |Working|large cattle| | | |horses.| (horses | | | | |inclusive). | | +------------------------------+-------+------------+------------+ | _Ranenburg._ | | | | |In the communities in question| 1.6 | 3.2 | 27 | |Among former serfs at large | 1.2 | 2.6 | 37 | |Among former State peasants | | | | | with agrarian communism | 1.3 | 2.9 | 33 | | | | | | | _Dankoff._ | | | | |In the communities in question| 1.5 | 2.9 | 33 | |Among former serfs at large | 1.3 | 2.5 | 35 | |Among former State peasants | | | | | with agrarian communism | 1.3 | 2.6 | 33 | +------------------------------+-------+------------+------------+

[64] Altogether or partly, but without cultivating the rest personally.

[65] Indeed, we find the _mir_ in some instances playing the part of land broker. The community of former serfs of Prince Shtchetinin, in the village of Sergievskee Borovok, Ranenburg, rented a field of 434 dessiatines (1172 acres), at 16 rubles the dessiatine, and re-rented one-third of the tract at a commission of from 3 to 4 rubles per dessiatine (_i. e._, from 20 to 25 per cent.), and even more. (_Reports_, part I., p. 316, No. 10. _Cf._ also p. 289, No. 15, etc.)

No doubt this business could be as successfully performed by any East Side New York real estate and land improvement agency, as by the Ryazañ peasant communists.

[66] _Ibid._, Vol. II., part I., p. 264.

[67] This is shown by the comparative data concerning tenure at will among the two main divisions of the peasantry:

+---------------------+------------+-------------+-----------+---------+ | | Tenants. |Land leased. | | Land | | Classes and +------+-----+-------+-----+Tenants to |leased | | Districts. |House-| Per |Dessia-| Per |population,|to land | | |holds.|cent.|tines. |cent.| per cent. |owned, | | | | | | | |per cent.| +---------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-----------+---------+ | _Ranenburg._ | | | | | | | |Former serfs | 4392 | 83 | 15337 | 84 | 34 | 20 | |Former State peasants| 893 | 17 | 3010 | 16 | 11 | 3 | | | | | | | | | | _Dankoff._ | | | | | | | |Former serfs | 3205 | 83 | 11078 | 81 | 32 | 17 | |Former State peasants| 676 | 17 | 2765 | 20 | 13 | 4 | +---------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+-----------+---------+

[68] The table includes 62 per cent. of the total area of rented land, the data for the classification being furnished by the statements in the _Appendices_ to the _Reports_ for the districts in question.

[69] We find this tendency very pronounced in the _gubernia_ of Voronezh:

+--------------+---------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | Area rented. | | | | | Districts. +-----------+--------------+------------+-----------+ | | For money | For share in | For labor | | | | rented, | crops, | and money, | Total, | | | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | +--------------+-----------+--------------+------------+-----------+ |Zadonsk | 86 | 7 | 7 | 100 | |Korotoyak | 88 | 12 | .. | 100 | |Nizhnedevitsk | 94 | 4 | 2 | 100 | +--------------+-----------+--------------+------------+-----------+

(_Cf._ _Statistical Reports_, Vol. IV., part I., Vol. V., part I.; Vol. VI., part I., Table of Rented Land.)

[70] Here are some instances:

1. Village Solntzevo, district of Ranenburg.--“Some five years ago, after one failure of the crops, 100 householders were 6000 rubles in arrears with their rent. Up to this date they have paid practically nothing, and live with the threat of being sold out hanging perpetually over their heads.” (_Loc. cit._ App., p. 308.) The result can be shown in figures:

_Rent (in rubles) paid:_ _Number of tenants._ _By all tenants._ _By each one._ In 1877 100 6000 60 In 1882 75 3514 47

(_Cf._ p. 123.)

2. Village Bahmetyevo, Ranenburg.--“Excessive rent, often not returned by the yields, has caused the heavy indebtedness of many a householder” (p. 331).

3. Village Blagueeya.--“The terms of tenure are very burdensome--above 20 rubles the dessiatine. One part of the rent must be discharged in labor, the rest is payable in advance. Leasing land is often direct loss. A good many are in debt, and not infrequently get ruined.” (_Ibid._)

[71] _Cf._ Table IV. in the Appendix.

[72] _Principles of Political Economy_, eighth edition, Vol. I., p. 453.

[73]

+-------------------------------+------------------------------+ | |Percentage to the total of the| | | peasantry. | | Classes. +--------------+---------------+ | | Korotoyak. |Nizhnedevitzk. | +-------------------------------+--------------+---------------+ |Households taking to wage-labor| 62 | 69 | |Of these are: | | | | Regular farmers | 50 | 63 | | Laborers proper | 12 | 6 | +-------------------------------+--------------+---------------+

[74] Detailed tables containing the rates of wages paid in different occupations are found in the Appendix.

[75] Optimism is inborn in the Russian; to whatever creed or party he may belong, things ever appear to him as he would like them to be. The Russian peasantist must not therefore be censured for his misconception of this most typical figure of the modern Russian village. The peasant who agrees to do the full work of cultivating and harvesting a tract of the landlord’s field appears to Mr. Euzhakoff as a tenant, with the only peculiarity that “the tenant takes his share in money, while leaving the landlord to take the crops” (_loc. cit._, pp. 26-27). This confusion reminds one to some extent of the attempts of certain economists to represent the workingman as capitalist, and the capitalist as workingman. There is, however, one extenuating circumstance that may be urged on behalf of the well-meaning author, in the hopelessness of the task he has undertaken with the best intentions, _viz._, to demonstrate that the debilitated Russian Capitalism, condemned before its birth by history, is unable to hold its ground in the contest with the triumphant small peasant culture.

[76] There are in all two statements to the effect that work is done for straw, flour, etc. (_Loc. cit._, part II., p. 198, No. 4; p. 206, No. 3.) Cases in which work is done for rented land, or for a share in the crop, have been counted as tenure.

[77] _Loc. cit._, part I., p. 264. Figures on the indebtedness of the peasantry with regard to farm labor for wages are found in the _Statistical Reports for the Gubernia of Voronezh_ (Vol. V., part 1.; Vol. VI., part I., Table G.). In the table that follows the figures are reduced to percentage rates:

+----------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+--------+ | | Rate to | Rate to | Rate to |Average | | Districts and classes. |population,| farm |indebted,|due by 1| | | per cent. |laborers,|per cent.|house- | | | |per cent.| |holder, | | | | | |rubles. | +----------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+--------+ |_District of Korotoyak._ | | | | | |Indebted: 1. All told | 50 | -- | 100 | 34.80 | | 2. Farm laborers | -- | 52 | 39 | 23.99 | | | | | | | |_District of Nizhnedevitsk._| | | | | |Indebted: 1. All told | 50 | -- | 100 | 44.38 | | 2. Farm laborers | -- | 56 | 46 | 23.46 | +----------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+--------+

[78] The mythical first Russian prince, to whom the _élite_ of the aristocracy trace their ancestry.

[79] Carpenters, shoemakers, tailors, blacksmiths, and others who supply by their work the local wants.

[80] _Cf._ Appendix, Table V.

[81] ENGAGED IN SKILLED LABOR IN EVERY 1000.

_Households._ _Adult workers._ Ranenburg 72 53 Dankoff 67 49

[82] BOARD FURNISHED BY THE EMPLOYER.

_Paid to_ _For the summer season._ _Per year._ Farm help From 25.00 to 35.00 From 35.00 to 60.00 Carpenters ” 55.00 to 70.00 100.00

[83]

_Workingmen._ _Concerns._ _Total._ _Average to concern._ Ranenburg 506 1985 3.9 Dankoff 240 1355 5.6 --- ---- --- Total 746 3340 4.5

Virtually, however, the average is less than this, since there are included only those industrial concerns belonging to peasants, and situated in the precincts of the villages, while peasant labor is also employed in those enterprises owned by the landlords and situated on their estates.

[84] This is the industry which is protected, through prohibitive tariffs and export premiums, from foreign competition.

[85] Twelve communities were found by the statisticians in which a considerable part of the membership consisted of regular beggars. As an example may be quoted the village Bratovka, bailiwick Naryshkinskaya, Ranenburg: “A good many go a-begging even when crops are good; in years of failure over half the village takes to begging.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 283.) Professional beggary has been of late very comprehensively described by some of the observers of peasant life. Late in the fall the huts are nailed up, and caravans of peasants--man, wife and child--start on a journey “for crumbs.” We read in the _Statistical Reports for the Gubernia of Tamboff_:

“Everywhere the peasants report a great number of beggars; generally they are peasants from a strange district. It is only in a case of extreme necessity that a man able to work would force himself to ask alms in his own village. Usually, the needy families are supported through loans of bread from their neighbors, who divide with them their last provisions. The peasants of the district of Morshansk report, moreover, that they are haunted by a good many beggars from the district of Shatzk, as well as from the _gubernias_ of Vladimir and Ryazañ.” (Vol. III., p. 277.)

Does it not exactly remind one of the historical picture drawn by Vauban, who reported that “one-tenth of the French peasants are beggars, and the remaining nine-tenths have nothing to give them?”

[86] The question of the degree to which they are successful in starting as farmers, is one that does not come within the scope of this essay. I have discussed this question in my previous publication, _Peasant Emigration to Siberia_, Moscow, 1888.

[87] The wandering population of the district of Voronezh was divided as follows, between the several branches of employment:

_Workers._ _Per cent._ Agriculture 1283 62 Handicraft 469 23} Personal service 89 4} 38 City and railroad labourers 219 11} ---- --- Total 2060 100

[88] The general statements made to this effect by the peasants, and reproduced in the _Reports for the Gubernia of Ryazañ_, could obviously not be presented in figures, for this would require at least two censuses.

[89] The co-relation existing between outside work and the decay of farming may be inferred from the following table for the districts Ranenburg and Dankoff:

_Kind of employment._ _Communities._ _Households._ _Horseless, per cent._

Local only, no outside workers 90 1124 27 Throughout the region 653 36126 35

[90] _Cf. loc. cit._, part II., p. 233, No. 14.

[91] _Statistical Reports for the Gubernia of Smolensk_, Vol. IV., pp. 296, 304, 350, 352: Vol. V., pp. 218, 226, 272, 274.

[92] It can be seen by contrasting the figures of families whose houses have been sold with those of other destitute peasant groups:

_Percentage of families._ _Landless or leasing _Owning neither horse _Houseless._ their total lots._ nor cow._ Ranenburg 8 15 25 Dankoff 10 15 25

[93] This is confirmed by a great many statements in the _Reports for the Gubernia of Ryazañ_, as well as by the following table taken from the _Statistical Reports for the Gubernia of Smolensk_:

+-----------------------+----------+------------+ | Absent. |Youkhnoff,|Dorogobouzh,| | |per cent. | per cent. | +-----------------------+----------+------------+ |Rate to the population | 7 | 5 | | Of these: | | | |Owning houses | 19 | 27 | |Houseless | 81 | 73 | | | ---- | ---- | | Total | 100 | 100 | +-----------------------+----------+------------+

+-----------------------+----------+------------+ | Houseless. |Youkhnoff,|Dorogobouzh,| | |per cent. | per cent. | +-----------------------+----------+------------+ |Rate to the population | 9 | 6 | | Of these: | | | |Living in the village | 36 | 41 | |Absent from the village| 64 | 59 | | | ---- | ---- | | Total | 100 | 100 | +-----------------------+----------+------------+

[94] “The Pillars” is the title of a very popular novel by Mr. Zlatovratsky, one of the leading peasantist writers.

[95] I must again plead for extenuating circumstances in the event of being mistaken as to the exact date.

[96] The “major” _i. e._ the head of the family, composed of married brothers and sisters, is not always the eldest brother. In case the eldest male member of the family shows himself not qualified for the management of the household, one of the younger brothers is occasionally entrusted with the office.

[97] To use the term adopted by Mr. Michaïlovsky, the renowned Russian writer on sociology.

[98] The number of workers included in the tenth census is not given in the reports, but the distribution of the population according to age is not likely to have changed very much in 25 years, the rates being determined to a great extent by biological influences, which are modified very slowly. The percentage of the total male population that by the census of the zemstvo had reached the age at which they are usually set to work is as follows:

_Per cent._ Ranenburg (1882) 47 Dankoff (1882) 47 Korotoyak (1887) 47 Nizhnedevitzk (1887) 46

Taking these figures as co-efficients, we obtain the number of male workers to a family in 1858.

[99] The figures above given are rather too little expressive for the actual degree of the dissolution of the patriarchal family abroad. The following are the figures for the whole region covered by the statistical investigation of the zemstvo toward January 1, 1890 (_cf._ Introduction):

Communities 50,429 Households 3,309,020 Males and females 19,693,191 Average membership to 1 family 5.95 To the do. of Ranenburg 6.4 ” ” Dankoff 6.4 ” ” Korotoyak 7.3 ” ” Nizhnedevitzk 7.8

[100] The correlation between the number of workers and the size of the farm can be summed up as follows:

+-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+ | | Classes of Farms (per cent.). | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+ | | Korotoyak. | Nizhnedevitsk. | |Number of Workers+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | to 1 Family. | Below | | Above | Below | | Above | | | the |Average| the | the |Average| the | | |average| size. |average|average| size. |average| | | size. | | size. | size. | | size. | +-----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |None | 61 | 33 | 6 | 49 | 44 | 7 | |One | 25 | 59 | 16 | 29 | 56 | 15 | |Two | 3 | 56 | 41 | 7 | 60 | 33 | |Three | 1 | 22 | 77 | 3 | 25 | 72 | +-----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Total | 16 | 50 | 34 | 18 | 51 | 31 | +-----------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

[101]

+-------------+----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+ | | Stopped working on | Stopped tilling one part | | | their farms. | of their farms. | +-------------+----------+---------+----------------+---------+ | | | | With 1 horse. | | | | | +---------+------+ | | | | In the | All | All | In the | | | |district |“stopped”|with 1|district | | |Horseless,|at large,| _etc._ |horse |at large,| | Districts. |per cent. |per cent.| = 100. |= 100.|per cent.| +-------------+----------+---------+---------+------+---------+ |Zadonsk | 95 | 25 | 73 | 13 | 7 | |Korotoyak | 95 | 15 | 62 | 16 | 8 | |Nizhnedevitsk| 96 | 13 | 65 | 27 | 13 | +-------------+----------+---------+---------+------+---------+

As shown by these figures, the percentage of householders who are unable to till the full size of their farms is twice as large among those with one horse as in the region at large; moreover, this transitional class of weak householders consists chiefly of those with one horse.

[102]

_Districts._ _“Horseless,” _With 1 horse, _In all, per cent._ per cent._ per cent._

_Gubernia of Voronezh_--

Zadonsk 25 40 65 Korotoyak 13 32 45 Nizhnedevitsk 13 32 45

_Gubernia of Ryazañ_--

Ranenburg 36 27 63 Dankoff 34 25 59

[103] The following tables are fully conclusive as regards the rise and growth of this class:

I. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER OF ADULT MALE WORKERS TO ONE HOUSEHOLD (TOTAL IN EVERY CLASS = 100.)

+-------------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | | Korotoyak. | Nizhnedevitsk. | | +-----------+---------+-----------+---------+ | |Total lot |Stopped |Total lot |Stopped | | Households. |tilled with|working |tilled with|working | | |the owner’s|on their |the owner’s|on their | | |live stock,|farms, |live stock,|farms, | | |per cent. |per cent.|per cent. |per cent.| +-------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------+ |With 3 or more workers | 89 | 2 | 88 | 2 | |With 2 workers | 86 | 6 | 82 | 5 | |With 1 worker | 73 | 19 | 65 | 20 | |Without workers | 24 | 72 | 30 | 60 | +-------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------+ | In all | 78 | 15 | 74 | 13 | +-------------------------+-----------+---------+-----------+---------+ |In the Gubernia of Ryazañ| 57 | 36 | 59 | 34 | | +-----------+---------+-----------+---------+ | | Ranenburg. | Dankoff. | +-------------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

II. CLASSIFICATION THE SAME (ALL “STOPPED WORKING,” ETC. = 100.)

+-----------------------+---------------------------------+ | | Stopped working on their farms. | | Households. +----------------+----------------+ | | Korotoyak, | Nizhnedevitsk, | | | per cent. | per cent. | +-----------------------+----------------+----------------+ |With 3 or more workers | 2 | 2 | |With 2 workers | 12 | 14 | |With 1 worker | 62 | 67 | |Without workers | 24 | 17 | +-----------------------+----------------+----------------+ | In all | 100 | 100 | +-----------------------+----------------+----------------+

[104]

+-------------------+----------------------------------+----------------+ | | Families numbering | All told. | | +--------+-------+--------+--------+----+-----+-----+ | |No adult|One |Two |Three or|Full|Half-|Total| | Districts. |male |adult |adult |more | | | | | |workers.|male |male |adult | workers. | | | |worker.|workers.|male | | | | | | | | |workers.| | | | +-------------------+--------+-------+--------+--------+----+-----+-----+ | _Korotoyak_: | | | | | | | | |The farmer’s family| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |1.8 | 0.4 | 2.2 | |Hired laborers | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.5 |1.0 | 0.2 | 1.2 | +-------------------+--------+-------+--------+--------+----+-----+-----+ | Total workers | 1.2 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 4.5 |2.8 | 0.6 | 3.4 | | _Nizhnedevitsk_: | | | | | | | | |The farmer’s family| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |2.0 | 0.5 | 2.5 | |Hired laborers | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.4 |0.8 | 0.4 | 1.2 | +-------------------+--------+-------+--------+--------+----+-----+-----+ |Total workers | 1.0 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 4.4 |2.8 | 0.9 | 3.7 | +-------------------+--------+-------+--------+--------+----+-----+-----+

[105]

+---------------+----------+------------------------+ | |Villages | Employing farmers. | | |in the +---------------+--------+ | |district. |Total |To every|To 1 | |Districts. | |house-|100 |village.| | | |holds.|house- | | | | | |holds. | | +---------------+----------+------+--------+--------+ |Korotoyak | 128 | 829 | 4 | 6.5 | |Nizhnedevitsk | 147 | 1067 | 5 | 7.3 | +---------------+----------+------+--------+--------+

[106] The farms of the average size (from 5 to 15 dessiatines), or those below the average size, are not available for the purposes of comparison, since the figures are influenced by yet another agent, _viz._, by the lack of land, leaving a narrow field for even the labor of the farmer himself.

[107]

+---------------+----------------------------------------------------+ | | Households separated within | | +-------------------------+--------------------------+ | | | | | Districts. | The decennial periods | The quinquennial periods | | +------------+------------+-------------+------------+ | | 1868-77, | 1878-87, | 1878-82, | 1883-87, | | | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | +---------------+------------+------------+-------------+------------+ | Zadonsk | 30 | 36 | 17 | 19 | | Korotoyak | 22 | 35 | 17 | 18 | | Nizhnedevitzk | 27 | 39 | 18 | 21 | +---------------+------------+------------+-------------+------------+

[108]

+---------------+----------------------+--------------------------+ | | | Tilling their plots with | | | | their own stock and | | Districts. | Households of yearly | implements. | | | or season laborers. +-------------+------------+ | | | Households. | Per cent. | +---------------+----------------------+-------------+------------+ | Korotoyak | 1891 | 1315 | 70 | | Nizhnedevitzk | 2313 | 1912 | 83 | | Zadonsk | 2733 | 1558 | 57 | +---------------+----------------------+-------------+------------+

[109]

+----------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | | Korotoyak. | Nizhnedevitzk. | | To 1 household upon +----------+----------+----------+----------+ | an average. | Full- | Half- | Full- | Half- | | | workers. | workers. | workers. | workers. | +----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | Total membership | 2 | 0.4 | 1.9 | 0.4 | | Employed outside | 1 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 0.3 | | +----------+----------+----------+----------+ | Remain at home | 1 | 0.3 | 1 | 0.1 | +----------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

[110]

_Zadonsk._ _Korotoyak._ _Nizhnedevitzk._ Total permanently employed 100 100 100 Households with 1 full worker 64 33 38 Stopped working on their farms 43 33 17

[111] _Kulak_ means “fist”; _miroyed_ means “_mir_ fretter.” These are nicknames for the village usurer and saloon keeper.

[112] Gleb Oospensky stood alone in his skepticism, opposing his ironical smile to the universal illusion. With his perfect knowledge of the peasantry, and his extraordinary artistic talent that penetrated to the very heart of the phenomena, he did not fail to see that individualism had become the basis of economic relations, not only as between the usurer and the debtor, but among the peasants at large.--_Cf._ his _Casting in one mould (Ravnenie pod odno), Russkaya Mysl_, January, 1882.

[113] In the _Reports for the gubernia of Ryazañ_, column 36 of the General Table, states “the area of land held in property by every 10 shareholders of the communal land,” and column 42, the respective data with regard to lease. The figures have no practical value unless it is assumed that all members of the community have their shares in the land acquired in property, or held under lease. In reality, however, the contrary is the case.

[114]

+-------------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ | | Zadonsk. | Korotoyak. |Nizhnedevitsk.| | Classes. +-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+ | | House-| Per | House-| Per | House-| Per | | | holds.| cent.| holds.| cent.| holds.| cent.| +-------------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+ |Employers | 609 | 4 | 829 | 4 | 1067 | 5 | |Employees (farm | | | | | | | | laborers engaged | | | | | | | | yearly or per season) | 2733 | 17 | 1891 | 9 | 2313 | 12 | +-------------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+ |Total peasant population | 15704 | 100 | 20282 | 100 | 20072 | 100 | +-------------------------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+------+

[115] Households with 2 and those with 3 horses are counted together in the tables; yet given the number of horses, the membership of every group, is found by solving two equations with two unknown quantities.

[116] There are, all told, 103 households of traders who do not work on their farm, _i. e._, 8 per cent. of all the traders, or 0.5 per cent. of the total peasant population of the district of Korotoyak.

[117] We find among the traders a large minority whose farms do not exceed the average; still the lack of communal land is made up by the greater development of tenure, as shown in the following table:

+---------------------+------------+------------+--------------+ | | Total. | Tenants. | Rented land | | | | |to 1 household| | D. of Korotoyak. +------+-----+------+-----+ upon an | | |House-| Per |House-| Per | average | | |holds.|cent.|holds.|cent.|(dessiatines).| +---------------------+------+-----+------+-----+--------------+ |Traders owning from | | | | | | | 1 to 5 dessiatines | 59 | 5 | 48 | 81 | 5.9 | | 5 to 15 ” | 444 | 35 | 311 | 70 | 8.6 | | 15 to 25 ” | 392 | 31 | 288 | 73 | 9.7 | | above 25 ” | 370 | 29 | 271 | 73 | 17.3 | | +------+-----+------+-----+--------------+ | Total | 1265 | 100 | 918 | 73 | 11.4 | +---------------------+------+-----+------+-----+--------------+

[118]

_Farmers _Households._ merely. _Traders. Per cent._ Per cent._ Without adult male workers .. 3 With 1 adult male worker 29 24 With 2 adult male workers 40 33 With 3 or more adult male workers 31 40 ---- ---- Total 100 100

[119]

+-------------------------------+-------------------+------------------+ | |Employing farmers. |Laborers employed.| | +------+------------+-------+----------+ | Classes (in the District |House-|Rate within | Per | To 1 | | of Korotoyak). |holds.|the class | cent. |household.| | | |(per cent.).| | | +-------------------------------+------+------------+-------+----------+ |Traders | 296 | 22 | 43} 59| 1.5 | |Mere farmers | 161 | 8 | 16} | 1 | |In all the rest of the district| 372 | 2 | 41 | 1.1 | | +------+------------+-------+----------+ | Total | 829 | 4 |100 | 1.3 | +-------------------------------+------+------------+-------+----------+

[120]

_Households of trading farmers._ _Employing permanent laborers, per cent._ With 3 or more adult male workers 16 With 2 or less adult male workers 25 -- Total 22

[121]

+--------------------------+---------------------+---------+ | | | In the | | | In the class. |district | | Stopped working | |at large.| | on their plots. +-----------+---------+---------+ | |Households.|Per cent.|Per cent.| +--------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+ |Horseless | 2471 | 90 | 13 | |With 1 horse | 256 | 9} 10 | 32} 87 | |With 2 horses or more | 33 | 1} | 55} | | +-----------+---------+---------+ | Total | 2760 | 100 | 100 | +--------------------------+-----------+---------+---------+

The class almost coincides on the whole with the so-called “horseless:”

“_Horseless._” _Households._ _Per cent._ Traders 68 3 } 8 Tilling their plots 143 5 } Stopped tilling their plots 2471 92 ---- ---- Total 2682 100

The 10 per cent. who stopped tilling their plots, though owning 1 horse or more, as well as the 8 per cent. who manage to till their plots without working horses, make (each of these sections) only about 1 per cent. of the peasantry of the district. Thus, in identifying the proletarians with the “horseless,” the error is of the kind to be neglected, to use the mathematical term.

[122]

+--------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ | | Stopped | | In the | | | tilling | “Horse- |district | | Households. | their | less.” |at large.| | | plots. | | | | +---------+---------+---------+ | |Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.| +--------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ |Landless | 11 } 48| 11 } 48| 2 } 16| |Owning less than 5 dessiatines | 37 } | 37 } | 14 } | |Owning from 5 to 15 dessiatines | 42 | 43 | 50 | |Owning from 15 to 25 dessiatines| 9 } 10| 8 } 9 | 25 } 34| |Owning above 25 dessiatines | 1 } | 1 } | 9 } | | +---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | | | | | | |Average plot: | | | | | To 1 household, dessiatines | | 7.2 | 14.4 | | To 1 adult male worker, ” | | 7.9 | 8.3 | +--------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+

[123]

+---------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ | | Stopped | | In the | | | tilling | “Horse- |district | | Households. | their | less.” |at large.| | | plots. | | | | +---------+---------+---------+ | |Per cent.|Per cent.|Per cent.| +---------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+ |Without adult male workers | 24} 86 | 17} 85 | 5} 51 | |With 1 adult male worker | 62} | 68} | 46} | |With 2 adult male workers | 12} 14 | 13} 15 | 30} 49 | |With 3 or more adult male workers| 2} | 2} | 19} | | +---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | |To 1 household upon an average: | | | | | Adult male workers | | 0.9 | 1.7 | | Half-workers | | 0.2 | 0.4 | | Males and females | | 3.8 | 7.4 | +---------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+

[124]

_Proletarians. _Korotoyak. _Nizhnedevitzk. (Stopped tilling their plots)._ Per cent._ Per cent._ Farm laborers 48 50 Miscellaneous 39 40 No steady employment 13 10 ---- ---- Total 100 100

[125]

_District of Korotoyak, “Horseless.”_ _Rubles._ _Per cent._

Gross income from farming 40610 24 Wages 122604 72 Odd jobs 6719 4 ------ ---- Total 169933 100

[126]

_“Horseless,” Korotoyak._ _Receipts. _Expenses. Rubles._ Rubles._ Gross income from farming 40610 Taxes 33738 Rent 1046 Wages paid 1144 ------ ------ Total 40610 35928 Balance (2682 households) 4682 ------ ------ 40610 40610 Balance to 1 household (money revenue) 1.75

[127]

_District of Zadonsk._ “_Horseless._” _Households._ _Per cent._ Feeding on the bread produced on their farms: All the year through 771 30 9 months 531 21} From 6 to 9 months 358 14} 44 From 1 to 6 months 220 9} Purchasing bread all through the year 665 26 ---- ---- Total 2545 100

[128]

_Farm cultivated by _Farming stopped _Districts._ hired labor. altogether. Per cent._ Per cent._ Zadonsk (total proletarians = 100) 69 31 Korotoyak ” 67 33 Nizhnedevitzk ” 74 26 Ranenburg ” 64 36 Dankoff ” 64 36

[129] This is the rate of these avowed proletarians within the total peasant population:

_Districts._ _Per cent._ Zadonsk 8 Korotoyak 5 Nizhnedevitzk 3 Ranenburg (landless included) 15 Dankoff ” ” 15

Of these, a greater percentage find employment in industry, as compared with the proletarians who cultivate their plots by means of hired labor:

_Districts and classes._ _Industrial laborers. _Farm laborers. Per cent._ Per cent._ _Korotoyak_: “Husbandless” 51 39 Farming proletarians 34 53

_Nizhnedevitzk_: “Husbandless” 48 44 Farming proletarians 37 53

Industrial proletarians are steadily carried away by the growing movement out of the rural districts. Thus it may be reasonably assumed that only one-half of the pure-blooded proletarians remain in the village. This constitutes from 2 to 8 per cent. of the population. Relative rates, however, are sometimes misleading without reference to the absolute numbers. 2 per cent. of a 100-million population convey the illusion of a two million strong rural proletariat with pronounced class interests. Still we know that they are dissipated in villages with an average inhabitancy of 62 households (_cf._ above page: 50,429 communes with 3,309,020 households). Now the maximum 8 per cent. of 62 households means only 5 proletarian families, and the minimum 2 per cent., only 1 proletarian of the European type to a village. It seems to show that there can be no proletarian class spirit (“_proletarisches Klassen-bewusstsein_”) in the Russian village of to-day.

[130]

+--------------------+--------------------------------------+---------+ | | Households. (Per cent.) | Horses | | Classes in the +------+------+-------+-------+--------+ to 1 | | district of |Horse-|With 1|With 2 |With 3 | With 4 |household| | Korotoyak. | less.|horse.|horses.|horses.| horses | upon an | | | | | | |or more.| average.| +--------------------+------+------+-------+-------+--------+---------+ |Trading farmers | | 12 | 25 | 27 | 36 | 3.2 | |Farmers merely | | | 45 | 38 | 17 | 2.8 | |Farmers--laborers | | 40 | 37 | 15 | 6 | 1.8 | | | | | |__________________| | | |Proletarian laborers| 90 | 9 | 1 | 0.1 | +--------------------+------+------+------------------------+---------+

[131]

_Households._ _D. of Korotoyak._ _With net profit. _With deficit. Per cent._ Per cent._ Male workers to 1 household-- None .. 3 } 73 One 29 70 } Two 41 } 71 23 } 27 Three or more 30 } 4 }

[132]

_Households._ _D. of Korotoyak._ _With net profit. _With deficit. Per cent._ Per cent._ Size of the farms-- Less than 5 dessiatines .. 15 From 5 to 15 dessiatines .. 79 From 15 to 25 dessiatines 72 6 Above 25 dessiatines 28 .. --- --- Total 100 100

_Dessiatines._ _Dessiatines._ Average to 1 household 24.4 10.6 ” to 1 adult male worker 11.5 8.3

[133]

_Section A. _Section B. _D. of Korotoyak._ Per cent._ Per cent._ _Landholding_-- Households owning Less than 5 dessiatines 15 10 From 5 to 15 dessiatines 79 52 From 15 to 25 dessiatines 6 28 } 38 Above 25 dessiatines .. 10 } --- --- Total 100 100

_Live stock_-- Households Without working horses .. 1} 40 With 1 working horse 49 39}

With 2 working horses 36} 38} With 3 working horses 13} 51 16} 60 With 4 or more working horses 2} 6} ---- ---- Total 100 100

[134]

_Gross income per worker._ _Rubles._ Section _A_ 66.17 Section _B_ 54.29

[135]

_Section A. _Section B. _Households (D. of Korotoyak)._ Per cent._ Per cent._ Without adult male workers 3} 73 1} 39 With 1 adult male worker 70} 38}

With 2 adult male workers 23} 27 37} 61 With 3 or more adult male workers 4} 24} ---- ---- Total 100 100

[136]

_Class II., Section B._ Workers and half-workers 23110 Employed without their farms 16299 ------ Working exclusively on their farms 6811 Total households 10016

[137] In the table below the percentage of old men is contrasted in the several groups of landholders, with a view to the division of the peasantry into the classes above mentioned:

-----------------+---------------------------+---------+----------------- | Classes. | |Old men above 60. Households +--------+----------+-------+Total +------+---------- (D. of |Strong |Farmers |Prolet-|in the |Total.|Rate to Korotoyak). |farmers.|labouring.|arians.|district.| |the number | I. | II. | III. | | |of house- | | | | | |holds. -----------------+--------+----------+-------+---------+------+---------- Landless | .. | .. |11 } | 2 } | 1} | 9 | | | } 48| } 16 | } 8 | Owning from 1 to | 2 | 11 |37 } | 14 } | 7} | 7 5 dessiatines | | | | | | | | | | | | Owning from 5 to | | | | | | 15 dessiatines | 14 | 60 |42 | 50 |41 | 11 | | | | | | Owning from 15 to| 56 } | 22 } | 9 } | 25 } |31} | 17 25 dessiatines | } | } | } | } | } | | } 84| } 29| } 10| } 34 | } 51| Owning above 25 | 28 } | 7 } | 1 } | 9 } |20} | 28 dessiatines | | | | | | -----------------+--------+----------+-------+---------+------+---------- Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 14 -----------------+--------+----------+-------+---------+------+----------

The relative number of old men above 60 is four times greater in the uppermost than in the lowest class of landholders (28:7). The absolute number of old householders belonging to the two lowest classes is the half of the average in the district (8:16), while the uppermost class numbers twice as many householders as the average, and in the two upper groups taken together the number of old householders exceeds the average by 50 per cent. (51:34). Now, the bulk of the class of strong farmers is made up of these two groups, and one-half of the old householders range among the very same groups, constituting there a very noticeable minority. On the contrary, one-half of the proletarians range among those groups in which old people cut no figure numerically.

[138] The above statements are based upon the following numerical data:

+--------------------+----------------------------------+------------+ | | One part leased. | | | +------+---------------------------+ | |District of Zadonsk:| | Land to 1 household | All | | Classes. | | (Dessiatines). |cultivated. | | |House-+-------+-------+-----------+ | | |holds.|In all.|Leased.|Cultivated.|Dessiatines.| +--------------------+------+-------+-------+-----------+------------+ |Owning above 25 | | | | | | | dessiatines | .. | 20.7 | 9.9 | 10.8 | 17.6 | |Owning from 15 to 25| | | | | | | dessiatines | .. | 9.7 | 5 | 4.7 | 8.9 | |Owning from 5 to 15 | | | | | | | dessiatines | .. | 5 | 2.7 | 2.3 | 4.9 | |Owning less than 5 | | | | | | | dessiatines | .. | 2.5 | 1.5 | 1 | 2 | | +------+-------+-------+-----------+------------+ | Total | .. | 6 | 3.2 | 2.8 | 4.9 | | | | | | | | |Having 4 horses | | | | | | | or more | 10 | 38.1 | 9 | 29.1 | 10.7 | |Having from 2 to 3 | | | | | | | horses | 226 | 11.8 | 5.6 | 6.2 | 5.9 | |Having 1 horse | 909 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 3.6 | |Having no horse | 877 | 4.3 | 2.7 | 1.6 | 2.6 | | +------+-------+-------+-----------+------------+ | Total | 2022 | 6 | 3.2 | 2.8 | 4.9 | +--------------------+------+-------+-------+-----------+------------+

If we consider the first series specified according to the size of the farms, we notice that the lessors, with their plots somewhat above the average, are falling into the next lower classes with regard to the extent of their farming. On the other hand, given the quantity of live stock, the extent of cultivated land remains constant. The lessors are those whose plots equal the standard of the higher class, while by the quantity of their live stock they are on a par with the lower class. The 10 households with 4 horses to each make an exception, the area cultivated by them considerably exceeding the average. There may be a few more households of the same kind, which are hidden in the average figures; on a whole, however, such households are only an exception to the rule.

As to the extent of the farms leased _in toto_, the following figures need no comment:

_Average extent of cultured land to 1 household (dessiatines)._ _Zadonsk._ _Korotoyak._ Total plot leased 2.2 2.5 In the region at large 4.6 5.8

_Percentage of families _Percentage of leased land to population._ to the total communal land._ _Ranenburg_: Leasing their plots-- 1) Total 12 } 10 2) Partly 14 }

_Dankoff_: Leasing their plots-- 1) Total 11 } 8 2) Partly 13 }

[139] _Cf._ Chapter III.

[140] It appears from the following table that among the higher classes of landholders, tenure of peasant plots is represented by a higher percentage than tenure from landlords, while the latter kind of tenure is stronger among the lower groups of landholders:

+-------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ | | Tenants. | Land in tenure. | | | Per cent. | Per cent. | | Classes and districts. +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | | Rented | Rented | Rented | Rented | | | from | from | from | from | | | land- |peasants.| land- |peasants.| | | lords. | | lords. | | +-------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ | _Zadonsk_: | | | | | |Owning less than 5 dessiatines | 38 | 31 | 28 | 21 | |Owning from 5 to 15 dessiatines| 52 | 51 | 48 | 48 | |Owning above 15 dessiatines | 10 | 18 | 24 | 31 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | | | | | | | | _Korotoyak_: | | | | | |Owning less than 5 dessiatines | 13 | 13 | 10 | 8 | |Owning from 5 to 15 dessiatines| 53 | 48 | 38 | 38 | |Owning above 15 dessiatines | 34 | 39 | 52 | 54 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | | | | | | | | _Nizhnedevitsk_: | | | | | |Owning less than 5 dessiatines | 25 | 15 | 23 | 9 | |Owning from 5 to 15 dessiatines| 52 | 49 | 41 | 42 | |Owning above 15 dessiatines | 23 | 36 | 36 | 49 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+ | Total | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | +-------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

[141] Peasant land held in lease for long terms:

+-------------+--------------------------+----------------------------+ | | Lessees. | Land. | | +-----------+--------------+------------+---------------+ | Districts. | | Per cent. | | Per cent. | | |Households.|(total lessees|Dessiatines.|(total in lease| | | | = 100). | | = 100). | +-------------+-----------+--------------+------------+---------------+ |Zadonsk | 179 | 5 | 801 | 8 | |Korotoyak | 400 | 7 | 4090 | 22 | |Nizhnedevitsk| 238 | 4 | 1061 | 6 | +-------------+-----------+--------------+------------+---------------+

[142] _Rental Prices per 1 Dessiatine._

_In yearly lease._ _For long terms._ _Districts._ _Rubles._ _Rubles._ Zadonsk 9.34 6.28 Korotoyak 8.45 5.81 Nizhnedevitsk 8.71 6.17

[143]

+---------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-----------+ | | | | Price per |Net profit,| | Districts. |Dessiatines.|Per cent.|dessiatine,| per cent. | | | | | rubles. | | +---------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-----------+ | _Korotoyak_: | | | | | |Rented for long terms| 4090 | 100 | 5.81 | | |Re-rented | 990.5 | 24 | 7.14 | 23 | | _Nizhnedevitsk_: | | | | | |Rented for long terms| 1061 | 100 | 6.17 | | |Re-rented | 138 | 13 | 10.09 | 63 | +---------------------+------------+---------+-----------+-----------+

We find, however, some cases wherein communal land was used for the purposes of farming on a large scale. The community was bound to combine the plots annually into one tract for the use of the lessee, who was often a merchant and a stranger to the community (_Statistical Reports for the Gubernia of Ryazañ_, Vol. II., Part I., p. 272, No. 6; p. 283, No. 5; p. 301, No. 5.)

In a few cases chronic arrears in taxes compelled the community itself to lease tracts of communal lands, usually pasture, to be converted into arable land. “The village ‘Dubki,’ Dankoff, was destroyed by fire in 1861, and the peasants delayed paying the tallage, which was levied through the sale of the rest of their chattels. Public sales continued at intervals until 1872, when they were stopped by the community through the lease of 50 dessiatines of meadow and pasture to be converted into arable.” (_Loc. cit._, Part II., p. 199, No. 4.)

“In the village Plemyannikovo, Dankoff, arrears in the tallage gave rise to repeated auction sales of the peasants’ chattels. In 1865 the community resolved to let out 150 dessiatines, and has since been unable to stop leasing.” (_Loc. cit._, p. 249, No. 6, _Cf._, also p. 210, No. 7.)

Exceptional as these cases are, they show nevertheless that the ownership of land by the village community does not preclude the possibility of capitalistic farming upon communal fields.

[144] In a series of articles which appeared first in the _Otetchestvenniya Zapiski_ (monthly) subsequently published in book form under the heading “_Community and Tax_.”

[145] The poll-tax did not exceed 1.60 rubles, and constituted but a very small portion of the entire amount of taxes levied. It was replaced by indirect taxes upon articles of peasant consumption. Besides, though the capitation tax proper was repealed, the system of taxation _per capita_ remained in force in the shape of the other direct taxes levied upon the peasant.

[146] Such was indeed the case in the village of Voskresenskoye, bailiwick Kochurofskaya, Dankoff, in which the plots of the emigrants were distributed in the subdivision among all the members of the community, notwithstanding the fact that the term of lease had not yet expired. (_Loc. cit._, part II., p. 236.)

[147] It is very questionable whether there is any action at law at all for the lessee in similar cases. The plot is held by the lessor under a precarious title, and the lessee may be supposed to have been cognizant of the risk.

[148] It is peculiar to find quite obsolete sentimentalism with regard to the Russian _mir_, among even Russian writers of reputation with the English public. We read in a recent issue of an English magazine: “Voting and ballot are unknown to Russian peasants, and every question is decided unanimously by means of mutual concessions and compromises, as in united families.”

Lost paradise!

A few concrete cases are produced here by way of elucidation:

1. Village Pokrovskove, bailiwick Yeropkinskaya, Dankoff: “About ⅓ of the householders are in good standing, the rest are destitute. The former deal in communal lots. The debate over subdivision is very warm; about 5 of the votes necessary to constitute the two-thirds majority are lacking.” (_Loc. cit._, Part I., p. 202, No. 15.)

_Householders._ _Number._ _Per _Votes._ cent._ Total allotted 140 100 Total. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ In good standing (tilling their total plots) 52 37 Against the subdivision. Destitute 88 63 In favor of the subdivision. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 93 66⅔ Vote required. 93 - 88 = 5 Votes deficient.

(_Cf. ib._, p. 16.)

2. Bailiwick Ostrokamenskaya, district of Dankoff: “The question of subdivision is brought up for discussion in only three communities. In none of the others does it attract serious attention. In all probability this is to be accounted for by the unsatisfactory quality of the soil, as well as by the great number of families who have at length fallen into destitution and lease their lots.” (_Loc. cit._,