Part 7

_References_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 22, 25, 115, 116. _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 122-124, 157. Frederick Starr, _American Indians_, pp. 14-21. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. “Dress and Adornment,” _Popular Science Monthly_, Vol. XXXIX., pp. 488-502; also pp. 787-801. Otis Tufton Mason, _Origins of Invention_, pp. 41, 42, 43, 241. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

_Lesson XII._ Perhaps we shall never know with certainty what stage the early cave-men had attained in the development of the family. For the purposes of this book however, it has seemed legitimate to supply the deficiency from what is known of the laws of social development. Enough will be accomplished in this subject if the child gets the idea that the family has not always been what it is to-day, and that the need of coöperation in hunting, in guarding the fire, and in protecting the clan from the raids of wild beasts, compelled people who would prosper to associate in this way.

_References_: Morgan, _Ancient Society_, pp. 383-508.

Katharine E. Dopp, _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 28-30, 99-101, 150, 156.

_Lesson XIII._ Since the winter life of the cave-men is depicted much more fully in the following number of the series, it has seemed best to pass it briefly at this time. If the child is encouraged to tell stories of what he thinks happened during the winter, enough will be accomplished in this subject. By writing the story as the child tells it, and allowing him to make corrections in it as it is read to him, he is able to produce a much better story than when he is obliged to write it. As he gets control of his hands, however, he may be asked to write short stories.

_Lesson XIV._ Undoubtedly the child who lives near birch trees is acquainted with them, for the birch is a tree that offers many attractions to the child. This lesson should extend and enrich these experiences by relating them to the serious activities of people in early stages of culture.

Where the child has the opportunity to see birch trees, but is denied the privilege of removing the bark, help him to see why it is necessary to take that privilege from him and, if possible, provide him with birch bark that can be purchased from dealers in such materials.

Even though birch trees are plentiful enough to permit the removal of the bark by the child, he should be taught to do it carefully and to take only what he needs to use. The same habit should be cultivated with reference to plants of all kinds. In this way the exercise of blind instinct, which in our present environment results in destructive habits, may be so directed as to form a social habit of wise economy in the use of natural resources.

A visit to a museum will suggest many uses for birch bark. Where such a visit is impracticable, well-selected pictures may serve the same purpose.

Instead of furnishing the child with a pattern of a basket, let him make one, first, by the use of paper and, later, with the birch bark. Encourage him to make such corrections as need to be made in the pattern before cutting the bark.

Where birch trees do not grow, it will be best to substitute for the study of the birch a study of some other tree whose bark or branches yield materials for basketry. In prairie regions a study of native grasses may precede this lesson, which may be read and appreciated to some extent, though not in the way it will be where the child is familiar with the birch tree.

_References_: Longfellow, _Hiawatha_. Lowell, _The Birch Tree_. Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 64-67, 121-127. _The Tree-Dwellers_, Basketry, pp. 138-139. (See articles in encyclopedias and natural histories on the birch.)

_Lesson XV._ If you have never seen a river in the time of a flood, prepare for this lesson by talking with some one who has, by studying rivers and floods, and pictures of the same, and by making use of experiences that may be gained everywhere during and after a heavy rain. Model the upper part of a river valley, showing the river with its tributary streams and ravines. Show the high rocky banks where the river is narrow and the low banks where the stream is wider. Determine at what place in the river a dam would be apt to be formed during the melting of the snow in the springtime, and what parts of the valley would be flooded first. Then get a clear idea of the way that the flood that is referred to in this lesson took place by modeling an underground channel that connects with the river on the one hand and with the outer world on the other. Such an underground channel, when dry, is a cave of the type that is referred to in this book. Nearly all of the bone caves in England where the remains of the cave-men have been found are of this type. The ravines that are found in limestone regions are regarded by Mr. Boyd Dawkins, who has made a special study of the subject, as caves that have lost their roofs, and the valleys as ravines whose sides have become worn by the process of weathering.

By the use of concrete methods you can help the child to understand these facts very well. He can understand, too, that “the dark narrow passage” referred to in the lesson was a narrow part of the underground channel that led to the river, and that when the water in the river rose to the level of this passage, water would begin to pour into the cave. (See Field Lessons, p. 165.)

_Lesson XVI._ This lesson shows the cave-man’s need of fire, and the need of coöperative effort in withstanding the devastation produced by the flood.

_Lesson XVII._ The council undoubtedly originated in a common need and was devoted to devising ways of meeting that need. In the council portrayed in this lesson, the old man, because of his experience and wisdom, gains the ear of the people, and for the time is their leader. In the time of combat with a wild beast, however, Strongarm leads.

Treat the subject of this lesson in such a way as to enable the child to sympathize with the cave-men in their distress, and, in a dramatic way, to unite with them in overcoming their difficulties. In playing the council, let the children decide who shall take the most important parts, and let each test his fitness for taking the part by showing what he can do. Perhaps the best results will come from this if the children hold the council during hours of play.

Most children who are old enough to go to school know something of volcanic fires and fires that are caused by lightning. They know the use of oil in lamps and from this can be led to consider natural oil wells. The old man has heard of the fire country, and it is natural that he should look to that country for the much needed fire. This use of what Nature provides before learning to invent artificial processes is typical of man’s method of advance.

_Lesson XVIII._ Give the child an appreciation of the difficulties to be met on the journey to the fire country. Use the map to determine the relative location of the fire clan’s cave and the fire country, and let the child show what difficulties he thinks the men will meet with and where they will meet with them by modeling the place mentioned in the sand box. When the main features are thus mapped out, let the children indicate the easiest route, the location of trails, the mountain passes, and the places where the most dangerous wild animals would be apt to be. Point out the mountains that prevent the moisture of the wooded hills from passing over to the dry, rocky country.

When the difficulties of the way are well in mind the children may hold a council to decide what to do to help the men get ready for the journey. After deciding what is needed let them make the articles and dramatize such parts of the life at the cave as they may choose to do. (See map, the frontispiece.)

_Lesson XIX._ The reference to Sharptooth and Bodo made in this lesson will be understood by the child who has read _The Tree-Dwellers_. The explanations given under _Lesson I._ will be sufficient for the child who has not read the book.

It is probable that the sequence of utensils for carrying water differs with the locality. It is likely that the cave-men made use of the cleansed stomachs of large animals they had slain for carrying water before they invented the skin water bag. It was not thought necessary to include that at this time, for the purpose is not so much to develop a complete sequence as it is to present a vivid picture of the way people made use of the natural resources at hand in supplying their needs. The child will derive much pleasure and profit from a careful study of the natural forms in his environment which he can use for carrying water.

_References_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 123-124. _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 43-46, 89-101. Otis Tufton Mason, _Origins of Invention_, p. 157. _Smithsonian Report_, 1894, p. 429.

_Lesson XX._ As long as the cave-men had fire they had no need of a door to the cave. Never having seen doors, it is not strange that the idea of making one did not come until it was forced upon them. When the cave was not protected by a fire or by a wicker-work door, man had constantly to dispute his possession with the wild beasts.

_Lesson XXI._ Although this lesson affords the opportunity to review the subject of natural fires, the main interest centers in the dramatic action. The contrast between the appearance of Sharpeyes now and when he set out on the journey will serve to emphasize the difficulties encountered. There is an opportunity here for a pantomimic representation of the return of Sharpeyes.

_Lessons XXII. and XXIII._ These lessons serve to satisfy the child regarding the details of the journey which they have been forecasting for several days. (See _Lesson XVIII._, p. 87.)

If the child does not know what punk is, tell him that it is decayed wood which, when lighted, holds fire for a long time without making a blaze. For that reason it was much valued as a means of preserving fire, and for tinder. Help the child to find punk in natural woods or along the shores of a lake or stream.

_Lesson XXV._ If the cave-men had not succeeded in getting fire, their social organization in the form of a clan would have broken up. Strongarm, realizing this and the immense advantage of living in clans, exerted himself to the utmost to get fire—the only means that he knew of for maintaining community life. The fact that he withheld part of the knowledge of the way he secured it is typical of the methods adopted by leaders from time immemorial of gaining ascendency over the masses. It is not the purpose at this time to condemn or to justify the act. That it resulted in securing peace and order within the clan is the point to be emphasized.

It is not known whether the cave-men invented the method of making fire by drilling before that of striking iron pyrites with flint. It is probable that both methods were invented at about the same time, the former in connection with the use of drills for boring, and the latter in connection with the manufacture of stone implements.

Since the sticks for making an effective fire drill should be chosen with care and dried thoroughly, the child should select them at this time, although he may not use them until he studies _Lesson XXXIV._

_Lesson XXVI._ The thanksgiving of the cave-men may well be used to give new meaning to our own thanksgiving festivals. The practice of giving food to the fire arose from the belief that it was alive. This belief and the worship of the fire is readily understood when it is remembered that fire was man’s greatest blessing at this time.

_Lesson XXVII._ If there are spruce trees in the vicinity, carry out the suggestions given in this lesson. If not, select some other tree or shrub that has tough flexible branches and make use of that instead. Encourage the child to make a basket of branches whose bark has not been removed, and then to peel enough twigs for a basket, using his teeth, finger nails, or other natural tools in doing the work. Be sure that he notices the difference in flexibility between dry twigs and those that have been soaked in water.

_Lesson XXVIII._ Let the child make such splints as he can without the aid of tools, or with such tools as he invents without suggestions from any person. Notice the rhythmical devices that are used by children when engaged in any kind of work.

_Lesson XXIX._ If the child has made splints and has already tried to weave them into baskets, he will readily see that the women got a variety in their weaving through the use of splints of different width. He may find it to his advantage to sort his splints, putting those of the same width together. The relation of the different styles of weaving to the need which caused them to be invented should be emphasized. Economy of time and material led primitive people to use the open style of interlacing for baskets intended for carrying coarse materials. The close work was better adapted for baskets used in carrying berries. The impacted work was used for baskets for carrying or for holding water. The child should be encouraged to use such a mode of weaving as is best adapted to the use to which he wishes to put the basket. The making of a water-tight basket involves more skill than the child has attained. He can understand, however, how such a basket was made, and the importance of the invention.

_Lesson XXX._ There are enough suggestions in this lesson to occupy the child for several days. Encourage him to experiment in natural methods of dyeing straw, grasses, reeds, and splints, by burying them in mud or in mud mixed with charcoal, by soaking them and exposing them to the warm sunshine, or by covering them in leaf mold. Let him test the natural materials in his environment that will yield color and invent ways of extracting it. If red chalk, ochre, hematite, or other mineral matter that may be used as a paint is found in its native state in the vicinity, let the child procure a small quantity and grind it to a fine powder. When mixed with water or with a fatty substance, it is ready to be used. The child may use it in decorating basketry, pottery, or some article that he may wish to have in his playhouse. If the child can see the paintings of primitive people, or illustrations of the same, it will serve to stimulate him to express his own ideas.

_References_: _Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, 1884-5, pp. 216-217. Alice Morse Earle, _Child Life in Colonial Days_, p. 398. New York: The Macmillan Company. Otis Tufton Mason, _Origins of Invention_, pp. 226, 255. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

_Lesson XXXI._ Most of the primitive methods of carrying have survived to the present day and may be seen if one will take the trouble to look for them. The cave-men carried the smaller animals that they killed on their backs. The larger ones were too heavy to be carried in this way, and so the custom arose of dividing the carcass. The most desirable portions were cut out and carried home, while the remainder was left for the wolves and hyenas. Encourage the child to make a carrying strap that he can use in carrying his books or other objects.

_References_: Otis Tufton Mason, _Origins of Invention_, pp. 325-48. “Primitive Travel and Transportation,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1894, pp. 237-593.

_Lesson XXXII._ Until man had gained a mastery of the more dangerous animals, it is not likely that he hunted the mammoth. The cave-man must have longed, however, to capture one of these powerful beasts, and it is very probable that he would be quick to take advantage of a situation that offered him the opportunity for so doing. This lesson portrays such a situation.

The use of the bone whistle referred to is typical of the first use of musical instruments. The origin of the bone whistle was doubtless associated with the habit of sucking bones. Let the child experiment with whistles so as to discover ways of producing tones of different pitch.

_Lesson XXXIII._ The capture of such a large animal as the mammoth was the occasion for calling all of the people who were represented in the capture of it to the spot for a feast. The tusks at this time were prized as trophies; later they were used in the manufacture of tools and weapons. The examination of a mammoth’s skeleton will convince one that the tusks were not removed without many hard blows. An idea of the size of the head may be gained from the fact that a single tooth weighed seventeen pounds. This fact will mean little to the child until he tries to lift an object of nearly that weight.

The skin of the mammoth was so heavy that ten men could carry it with difficulty. It was a dark gray color, covered with three coats. The inner coat was a soft reddish wool about five inches long, which protected it from the cold. The second coat was a close-set, tolerably fine, fawn-colored hair. The third or outermost coat was long, black, bristle-like hair which protected it from sharp branches of trees and from heavy blows. This long coarse hair gave the mammoth a more formidable aspect than he otherwise would have had.

_References_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 143-144. Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co.

_Lesson XXXIV._ While the child is studying the habits of the cave-men in respect to the use of fire, train him to be careful in the use of it.

After making a fire drill the child may try to make fire with it, but he should not be discouraged if he fails at first. The process is a difficult one and it requires great care. An old fire drill works best because the wood becomes charred and it is easier to keep a charred drill dry. In working any drill, care must be taken to keep up a steady and rapid motion with a downward pressure. The wood meal which is ground from the hearth by the drill must be allowed to collect in a little heap near which dry tinder is placed. It must be protected from strong drafts, but it may be fanned gently with the hand. As the spindle becomes warm from twirling, the wood meal becomes warm, then it begins to smoke, and at last it is fanned into a flame.

The illustration on page 183 is a reproduction from a photograph taken in 1899 of two third-grade boys of the State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wisconsin, who are using a fire drill. The class succeeded in getting fire with this drill which was made by one of the boys.

_References_: Walter Hough, “Fire-Making Apparatus in the U. S. National Museum,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1888, pp. 531-587. “The Methods of Fire-Making,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1890, pp. 395-409. Otis Tufton Mason, _Origins of Invention_, pp. 84-120. Scribner.

_Lesson XXXV._ Since the invention of the printing-press and the dissemination of printed matter, there has been a tendency to overrate the importance of the printed page, and to ignore other more fundamental sources of knowledge. The purpose of this lesson is partly to call attention to other ways of learning than by means of books, and partly to tell the child frankly what the sources are which have been drawn upon for the stories that are written in this book. To be sure he will not comprehend all that is meant by it, but the difference between what he can understand and what the adult understands is not so great as is often imagined. If fossil plants and animals are available, show them to the child and tell him what you know or can find out about them. If the child leaves the book with many unsettled problems, his condition is much more hopeful than if he thinks he has mastered the entire book.

=Industrial and Social History Series=

_By KATHARINE ELIZABETH DOPP, Ph. D._

_Lecturer in Education in the Extension Division of the University of Chicago. Author of “The Place of Industries in Elementary Education.”_

WHAT THE BOOKS ARE

_Book I._ =THE TREE-DWELLERS.= The Age of Fear.

_Illustrated with a map, 15 full-page and 46 text drawings in half-tone by Howard V. Brown. Cloth, square 12mo, 158 pages; 45 cents. For the primary grades._

This volume makes clear to the child how people lived before they had fire, how and why they conquered it, and the changes wrought in society by its use. The simple activities of gathering food, of weaving, building, taming fire, making use of stones for tools and weapons, wearing trophies, and securing coöperative action by means of rhythmic dances, are here shown to be the simple forms of processes which still minister to our daily needs.

_Book II._ =THE EARLY CAVE-MEN.= The Age of Combat.

_Illustrated with a map, 17 full-page and 68 text drawings in half-tone by Howard V. Brown. Cloth, square 12mo, 183 pages; 45 cents. For the primary grades._

_In this volume the child is helped to realize that it is necessary not only to know how to use fire, but to know how to make it. Protection from the cold winters, which characterize the age described, is sought first in caves; but fire is a necessity in defending the caves. The serious condition to which the cave-men are reduced by the loss of fire during a flood is shown to be the motive which prompts them to hold a council; to send men to the fire country; to make improvements in clothing, in devices for carrying, and in tools and weapons; and, finally, to the discovery of how to make fire._

_Book III._ =THE LATER CAVE-MEN.= The Age of the Chase.

_Illustrated with 27 full-page and 87 text drawings in half-tone by Howard V. Brown. Cloth, square 12mo, 197 pages; 45 cents. For the intermediate grades._

Here is portrayed the influence of man’s presence upon wild animals. Man’s fear, which with the conquest of fire gave way to courage, has resulted in his mastery of many mechanical appliances and in the development of social coöperation, which so increases his power as to make him an object of fear to the wild animals. Since the wild animals now try to escape from man’s presence, there is a greater demand made upon man’s ingenuity than ever before in supplying his daily food. The way in which man’s cunning finds expression in traps, pitfalls, and in throwing devices, and finally in a remarkable manifestation of art, is made evident in these pages.

_Book IV._ =THE EARLY SEA PEOPLE.= First Steps in the Conquest of the Waters.

_Illustrated with 21 full-page and 110 text drawings in half-tone by Howard V. Brown and Kyohei Inukai. Cloth, square 12mo, 224 pages; 50 cents. For the intermediate grades._

The life of fishing people upon the seashore presents a pleasing contrast to the life of the hunters on the wooded hills depicted in the previous volumes. The resources of the natural environment; the early steps in the evolution of the various modes of catching fish, of manufacturing fishing tackle, boats, and other necessary appliances; the invention of devices for capturing birds; the domestication of the dog and the consequent changes in methods of hunting; and the social coöperation involved in manufacturing and in expeditions on the deep seas, are subjects included in this volume.

_Other volumes, dealing with the early development of pastoral and agricultural life, the age of metals, travel, trade, and transportation, will follow._

_Write us for detailed information regarding these books and a complete list of our up-to-date publications_

RAND McNALLY & COMPANY _EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS_ CHICAGO NEW YORK LONDON

* * * * *

Transcriber’s Note: Obvious punctuation errors repaired. In the suggestions for teachers, there is no section for Lesson X. Both _The Tree Dwellers_ and _The Later Cave-Men_ are availble on Project Gutenberg.