Part 6

“Man as the Contemporary of the Mammoth and the Reindeer in Middle Europe,” translated by C. A. Alexander, for the Smithsonian Institution, from “Aus der Natur: die neuesten Entdeckungen auf dem Gebiete der Naturwissenschaften,” Leipzig, 1867, _Smithsonian Report_, 1867, pp. 335-362.

Wilson, Thomas, “Anthropology at the Paris Exposition in 1889,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1890, pp. 641-680.

_Classifications._ In reading the above books for the purpose of supplementing the first three numbers of this series, it must be remembered that no uniform system of classification has been adopted and that the reader must become familiar with several in order to be able to use the reference books most advantageously. To help the reader in getting a working idea of the different classifications the following summaries may be of value:

The progress of mankind is classified by Professor W. Boyd Dawkins into the following periods:

I. The Pleistocene period. 1. The mid-Pleistocene period. 2. The late Pleistocene period.

II. The Prehistoric period.

III. The Historic period.

Others classify the period with reference to the materials used in making implements and weapons and give us the following:

I. The Stone Age. 1. The Paleolithic or Rough Stone Age. 2. The Neolithic or Polished Stone Age.

II. The Age of Metals. 1. The Age of Copper. 2. The Age of Bronze. 3. The Age of Iron.

Still others classify with reference to the dominant industry of the period, giving:

I. The House Industries, or the Period of Domestic Economy. 1. The Hunting Stage. 2. The Fishing Stage. 3. The Pastoral Stage. 4. The Agricultural Stage, etc.

II. The Handicrafts, or the Period of Town Economy.

III. The Factory System, or the Period of National Economy.

The Pleistocene period is the one that is treated in the first three volumes of this series. It is the period that is frequently designated as the Paleolithic or Rough Stone Age in contrast to the Neolithic or Polished Stone Age which belongs to what Professor Dawkins calls the Prehistoric Period.

Professor Dawkins divides that part of the Pleistocene period during which man inhabited the earth as the mid-Pleistocene and the late Pleistocene periods. Monsieur Du Pont, dividing it with respect to the form of animal life most characteristic, gives us the Age of the Mammoth and the Age of the Reindeer. M. de Mortillet, classifying it with reference to the localities which have yielded most materials for study, has made current the terms the _Chellian_, the _Mousterian_, the _Solutian_, and the _Madelenian_ epochs. The following table may serve to indicate in a general way how these various classifications are related. The reader who would like to pursue the question of classification further will find good summaries in the _Smithsonian Report of the U. S. National Museum_, 1888, p. 604; in the _Smithsonian Report of the U. S. National Museum_, 1890, p. 649; in Morgan’s _Ancient Society_, pp. 3-29, and in Dawkins’ _British Pleistocene Mammalia_.

====================+=======================+========================= The Tree-dwellers. | The Early Cave-men. | The Later Cave-men. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- The Age of Fear. | The Age of Combat. | The Age of the Chase. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- The Age of the Mammoth. | The Age of the Reindeer. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- Period of Extinct Animals. | Period of Migrated | Animals. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- Dawn of the Rough | The Paleolithic or Rough Stone Age. Stone Age. | --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- Eolithic Epoch. | Chellian Epoch. | Mousterian Epoch. | | Solutian Epoch. | | Madelenian Epoch. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- Mid-Pleistocene Period. | Late Pleistocene Period. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- The Pleistocene Period. --------------------+-----------------------+------------------------- Climate mild and | Climate becomes much | Arctic climate. Cold equable. | colder. Great | and dry. | extremes of heat | | and cold. | --------------------+-----------------------+-------------------------

============================================+========================= _Animals that have since become extinct._ |The same as in the | preceding period The Irish deer, the big-nosed rhinoceros, | with the exception the mammoth, the straight-tusked elephant,| of the big-nosed the cave-bear, and the sabre-toothed | rhinoceros and the _felis_ were survivals of an earlier | sabre-toothed _felis_, period and were accustomed to a warm | which were extinct. climate. | All of the animals | named became extinct at The small-nosed rhinoceros came from the | the close of this south and the woolly rhinoceros came | period. down from the north during this period. | | At the close of this period the big-nosed | rhinoceros and the sabre-toothed _felis_ | becameextinct. | --------------------------------------------+------------------------- _Animals that have since migrated._ |General invasion of | Arctic animals. The musk-sheep and the marmot came down | from the north during this period, stayed |At the close of the through the next period and then migrated | period they migrated to the Arctic regions. | to the north. --------------------------------------------+------------------------- _Living species._ |The same except that | those animals that In addition to those that migrated there | could not stand were the lion, panther or leopard, lynx, | the intense cold, wild-cat, spotted hyena, hippopotamus, | migrated south brown bear, grizzly bear, wolf, fox, stag,| each winter. roe, urus (the original form of the wild | cattle), aurochs or European bison, horse,|Arctic fauna wild boar, beaver, and water rat. Many of | characteristic of this these animals migrated south in the | period. winter and returned each spring. | --------------------------------------------+-------------------------

_Field Trips._ In localities where the natural materials needed for the child’s work are near at hand it will be best to gather them immediately before they are to be used. In regions less favorably situated it will undoubtedly be best to plan the work so as to make a few trips serve the purpose. Perhaps the trips most needed to make the lessons of this book yield their full value are the following:

1. To a stream of water to notice:

(_a_) The wearing and building power of the stream.

(_b_) The location and the strength of the current.

(_c_) The best places for fords and for bridges.

(_d_) The tributary streams and springs.

(_e_) The location of ravines in relation to the river.

(_f_) Caves or places where caves may have been or may yet be formed.

(_g_) The nature of the soil and its adaptation to the formation of caves.

(_h_) The parts of the neighboring land that would be flooded first if the river overflowed its banks.

(_i_) The place in the river where a natural dam might be formed.

(_j_) The place where an artificial dam might be built.

(_k_) Sites that would make good camping-places for hunters.

(_l_) Places where the best stones for weapons can be found.

2. To uncultivated spots on hillsides, in the woods or meadows to find:

(_a_) Tough sticks and branches that are so shaped that they can be fastened firmly to stone implements.

(_b_) Tough and flexible branches for making baskets.

(_c_) Tough grasses for making mats, baskets, and sandals.

(_d_) Birch bark for making baskets, picture frames, etc.

(_e_) Natural gum and pitch.

(_f_) Wood that is suitable for making a fire drill.

(_g_) Tinder and punk for making fire.

(_h_) A bed of gravel where good stones can be found.

(_i_) Animals and plants that may be of interest to the child.

Field lessons should be supplemented by informal trips by different members of the class. A view from the window of a high building may serve to give the child the relative location of the different parts of a river valley. Such a view is of special value after a trip, for it gives a unified view of the whole.

In places where access to natural materials is exceedingly difficult, it is well to secure the advantages that come from a system of exchange. The American Bureau of Geography offers opportunities for securing all kinds of raw materials as well as specimens showing “the changes incident to their conversion into finished products.” Teachers who wish to avail themselves of the privileges of this bureau can secure a circular containing full information regarding it by sending a letter with an enclosed stamp to the director of the bureau, Winona, Minnesota.

SPECIAL SUGGESTIONS

_Lesson I._ The inexperienced child may think of a cave as a dark, damp place, fit only for the habitation of wild animals. The cave as a habitation for man is a new idea and cannot be understood unless it is related to the natural and social conditions which prevailed during the earliest stages of culture. The child who has read _The Tree-Dwellers_ knows that before people learned to use fire, the caves were inhabited by the cave-bear, the cave-lion, the sabre-toothed _felis_, and by packs of spotted hyenas. He is prepared to understand why people were glad to live in caves. To help the child who has not had such a preparation understand this fact, ask him to think of a time when people had no shelter except the trees, no clothing except the skins of wild animals, no food except wild roots, fruits, and nuts, and no fire. After he has considered man’s life under such conditions, tell him of the conquest of fire, and of the changes effected in social life by its use. Help him to see that fire was man’s best means of protection at that time, for it was greatly feared by wild animals. By means of a free conversation about the points that the child may have difficulty in understanding, he will get a conception of man’s life before he lived in caves, and this is the best basis for understanding why people wanted a cave for a home.

If the child is not familiar with wooded hills, grassy plains, and dense forests, make use of field trips, of views from windows in high buildings, and of pictures to get a conception of them, and provide an opportunity for him to express his idea by modeling in sand. (See _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 18-27.)

Encourage the child to invent ways of getting a cave from a wild animal, but hold him responsible for the use of only such means as the cave-men had. The child who would use a gun, or even a bow and arrow, must learn that these devices were not yet invented, and that man had to use his mind to devise some way of conquering the wild beasts without the aid of such weapons.

_References_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 16-25. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1903. _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 89-101, 149, 150. Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co., 1903.

_Lesson II._ Although the main point of interest in this lesson is the way the fire clan takes possession of the cave, this social interest may be used as a means of learning various facts regarding the changes that take place in the natural world during late autumn. When such phenomena are seen as forces affecting the activities of man and of animals, they become interesting to the child. But if isolated from all social interests, if learned at all, they are carried as a dead weight. Encourage the child to act out the simple movements depicted in the story. At first this may be done during hours of play, but as teacher and children become accustomed to it, it should become a regular feature of the school work.

_Lesson III._ Knowing that Sabre-tooth is waiting for a chance to get into the cave, the child can understand why the first evening at the cave will be spent in planning ways of getting rid of him.

Perhaps the child may not realize at first why the cave-men were so careful to keep the fire burning, but if the use that they made of fire is emphasized, gradually he will appreciate something of what its loss might mean to the cave-men.

_Lesson IV._ Use this lesson to help the child get the meaning of the contrast between the crude implements that the cave-men used in securing food and in protecting themselves from their enemies, and the devices that we use for a similar purpose. In spite of the great contrasts that will be discovered, the child will find points of likeness between the implements of the cave-men, rude counterparts of which he can fashion for himself, and those that are still in use. Focus his attention upon the needs of the people that called forth the mechanical inventions of the period, and the use to which they were put in making the earth a safer place in which to live. By so doing, the killing of wild beasts, which, when considered as an end in itself, arrests the development of the finer feelings by fixing attention upon suffering without any purpose, becomes transformed into an act of great social significance; for we must not forget that the cave-men, by exterminating the most dangerous of the wild beasts, made the earth a more fit dwelling place for all succeeding ages. If the child, at this early period, can learn that the hunting peoples killed only enough to supply themselves with food and skins for clothing, and that even beasts of prey rarely kill more than they need for food, they will be in a position to treat many problems in a more rational way than they are usually treated.

The modeling of Sabre-tooth in clay is suggested for the sake of cultivating the habit of observing the beauty of form and movement in animals, and turning the interest that may have been generated by the lesson into artistic channels.

_Lesson V._ No doubt the flesh of the sabre-toothed _felis_ was not an attractive food, but in early times nearly everything was tested for food and used unless it was found to be injurious. Even though the cave-men had plenty of food, they no doubt would enjoy feasting upon the flesh of their enemy. Perhaps they believed that through eating Sabre-tooth’s flesh they might acquire something of his strength and courage.

The first cooking was undoubtedly the result of an accident. The invention was made only when man consciously controlled the process. At first, no doubt, animals were roasted in their skins, but as people began to prize skins for trophies, for clothing, and for thongs, they formed the habit of removing the skin. The fear that Sabre-tooth inspired would insure the removal of his skin for a trophy. The same is true of the sabre teeth.

Strongarm’s leadership illustrates the natural leadership of the most fit in time of danger. At other times, without doubt, there was no recognized leader.

_References_: Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 22-27. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. _The Tree-Dwellers_, pp. 115, 119-121, 156, 157. Chicago: Rand, McNally & Co.

_Lesson VI._ The manners of the cave-men at the feast may be understood when it is remembered that the food supply of hunting peoples is irregular. Their lack of forethought is such that there is either a feast or a famine. Besides, their digestive systems were so well developed that it was possible for them to eat enormous quantities without harm. The habit of eating together developed slowly and probably depended largely upon the degree to which coöperative action was used in hunting. Except upon extraordinary occasions we may conclude that only those ate together who worked together in securing food.

Encourage the child to make a collection of as many things as he can find that he can use for or make into dishes.

If the child is allowed to crack the marrow bones of a chicken or turkey and make soup of them, he will understand the liking of the cave-men for marrow bones. The conversion of bones into musical instruments played by striking, or into bone whistles, may also furnish a delightful occupation which may yield results of no mean value.

_Lesson VII._ Let the children dig cooking-pits and caves of various sorts in the ground and experiment with them to discover where the smoke goes and why, and the effect of the form of the cave or cooking-pit upon the draft. The invention of a means of carrying off the smoke, and the attempt to regulate the draft in these crude contrivances, will lead to an interest in the fireplaces and chimneys in the child’s own house. Make use of this interest in such a way as to lead the child to observe the materials used and forms adopted in the construction of modern fireplaces and chimneys, and encourage him to seek reasons for the same.

Show the child a picture of the interior of a cave that has stalagmites and stalactites, and illustrate their formation by dissolving rock salt or lime in water and letting it drip until a deposit is made.

_Lesson VIII._ If the cave-men wanted to keep such trophies as teeth and claws of animals, it is evident that they would have to bore holes through them. To pierce bright and shining natural forms, fossil shells, etc., for beads, was an easy matter. To bore holes through such hard objects as the teeth and claws of wild animals taxed the cave-man’s ingenuity. The different devices for drilling represented in this lesson doubtless required ages for their development. It has seemed best, however, to represent them together, since they are all sufficiently simple for the child to understand. The advantage of the use of the strap or the bow in turning the drill will be appreciated by the child after trying to twirl it by the use of the hands alone. To get the best results from this work it should be carried on by the child for several days. He will probably enjoy doing such work outside of school hours. Horizontal drilling upon the thigh, and vertical drilling with or without the strap or the bow, may be carried on in actual boring or as mere games. Such exercises serve to give an insight into related industrial processes of the present, and to establish physical coördinations which can be turned to account in a variety of ways. Let the child try to bore a hole through a hard substance by using a soft spindle with sand and water. Such a device works better than the flint point without the sand. Although much of the experimentation with awls and drills may be made outside of school hours, the results of these experiments should be discussed during the recitation period. In this way the interest that the child takes in play is transferred to his school work.

_References_: J. D. McGuire, “A Study of Primitive Methods of Drilling,” _Smithsonian Report_, 1894, pp. 623-756. 201 figs.

Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 27, 133. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

_Lesson IX._ Encourage the child to make a collection of the natural objects in his vicinity that can be used for tools or weapons, and encourage him to make such changes in the natural forms he has collected as he thinks would make them better fitted for the use to which he wishes to put them. Help him arrange them in some part of the schoolroom where they can be referred to easily from time to time. If the child can visit a museum where primitive implements and weapons are exhibited, it will be easier for him to understand the function that such crude implements have fulfilled in the life of the race. Where a museum is not available, the text, together with its illustrations, will supply sufficient data for the child to get an appreciation of the social significance of such implements. But in no case should the observation of the implement or the story about its use be made to take the place of actually making it.

The child will soon learn where to look for the best stones for implements and weapons, and how to choose forms that the river has worn into shapes that require but little work to fit them for use. It is worth while for the child to chip off a few flakes from the stones he selects, for the sake of the practical acquaintance that he gets with the properties of stones.

The name of the stone is a secondary matter, but if the teacher knows the names or can learn them from some person in the community, she can readily make the child familiar with the names of the more common varieties of stones.

In selecting suitable sticks for handles, the child will soon learn that he can save work by choosing a straight branch, and that it is worth while to cut it so as to have a forked end, or a shoulder to which he can bind the weapon. The need of a strong, tough handle furnishes a motive for studying the properties of wood. In rejecting the soft and brittle varieties, the child becomes acquainted with these as well as with the kinds that serve his purpose.

The selection of suitable material for binding the working part to the handle is a matter of considerable difficulty. No doubt the child who uses cord will find it impossible to bind the parts together as firmly as he desires. If after trying different materials no one thinks of the use of a material that will shrink, tell the children of the use of rawhide, and get enough from the meat market to illustrate its use. As the child tries different ways of winding the lashing, he will undoubtedly discover that the most effective binding is secured when the straps are wound symmetrically.

_References_: Otis Tufton Mason, _Origins of Invention, Stone-Working_, pp. 121-154. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Katharine E. Dopp, _The Place of Industries in Elementary Education_, pp. 20-29, 64, 65, 82, 93, 134-138. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

_Lesson XI._ This lesson illustrates the fact that skins of animals which originally were worn as trophies for the sake of social approval, developed into clothing which was worn partly for comfort.

Let the child make bone awls of the wing bones of chickens, and sinew thread from the sinews attached to the leg bones. Encourage him to sew with these materials. Different ways of lacing the shoes will suggest typical stitches. Others may be found in museums, but the stitches which are a result of the child’s ingenuity will be of most value to him. Later when he discovers that the stitches that he invented were invented ages ago and have been used ever since, he will feel a relationship with people removed from him in time and space. Making sandals or bags for himself or his friends, dressing dolls to play with or to give away, and many other similar activities will also serve to enlarge his interests.